Opening a Civil Engineering Consulting Firm

"I don't like my job."

"I would like to be my own boss."

"I want to be fairly compensated for my qualifications and efforts."

"I cannot take another day of my current position."

If you can relate to any of these sentiments, opening your own engineering consulting firm might be a great option. Whether you're currently employed, between jobs, or retired, now might be an ideal time to make the transition to being self-employed.

In this Blog,

1. Providing Autonomy

2. Figuring Out How Much to Charge

3. Working from Home vs. Working in an Office

4. Obtaining the Proper Insurance

5. Selecting Projects

6. Establishing Training Protocols

7. Hiring Staff

8. Self-Evaluation

9. Other Suggestions

1. Providing Autonomy

Many companies or governmental agencies prefer employees to retire while they are still relatively young-between the ages of 55 and 60. An advantage of having your own firm is that you can work as late in life as you would like to. You can choose to work full-time or part-time, set your own hours, and can accept or decline any assignments offered to you. If you are an early riser, you may start the day at 4:00 am and finish by noon or even earlier. Alternately, if you are a night owl, you could start the productive part of your day at 10:00 pm when the house is quiet and the television is off, so you can work productively until 4:00 or 5:00 am. Although working seven days a week is not recommended, some choose to work for four or five hours a day, seven days a week. You might even want to hire employees if your eventual goal is to become a larger firm.

2. Figuring Out How Much to Charge

You may agree to design something and inspect it as needed for a set price. If there is a change in scope, you can add to your original fee. Generally, though, consultants are paid by the hour. The best way to know what to charge is by doing some research or by asking other engineers that you trust how much they bill for similar services. Even small professional interactions like that can help you gain credibility and build mutually beneficial relationships.

3. Working from Home vs. Working in an Office

There are pros and cons of working from an office outside of your home, just as there are pros and cons of working within your own home. A disadvantage of working from home is you may have traffic many times during the day if you conduct meetings at your home office. While your neighbors may be friendly and supportive, they may not appreciate the congestion caused by a steady stream of vehicles. Therefore, it may be best to hold meetings someplace other than your home.

4. Obtaining the Proper Insurance

Being self-employed, you would be wise to obtain errors and omissions insurance to protect yourself from getting sued. This type of insurance provides specialized liability protection against damages not covered by conventional liability insurance. It protects you and your company from liability if a client were to file a lawsuit over careless actions, mistakes, or omissions made while conducting business that resulted in a monetary loss. If you see clients in your home, you will need business insurance as well.

5. Selecting Projects

As a consultant, you must have experience performing the tasks you are asked to perform. You must be organized and skilled to be both the engineer and approver. Your accurate assessment of your abilities will prompt you to accept assignments that you are qualified to perform. While big projects are great, small ones are fine, too, and may be more manageable. You may want to leave the big projects to the large engineering and construction companies. Don't be afraid to say no.

6. Establishing Training Protocols

As you get your business off the ground, establishing a regular human performance improvement (HPI) training protocol for yourself and other employees (if applicable) could be beneficial. HPI is a strategy for improving performance and outcomes and can include training as well as considering causes for problems beyond knowledge and skill gaps. Everyone in an organization could benefit from a defined HPI program, which will enhance morale and result in fewer mistakes and accidents.

It is important for consultants and their staff to receive ongoing training to stay current with new technology and new industry practices. Engineers, architects, and landscape architects can easily become consultants assuming they have the appropriate licenses.

7. Hiring Staff

Many people who open consulting firms may be the only person in the firm and may use other personnel services such as freelance drafters. There are disadvantages to using freelancers. You may have a rush job, and your regular draftsman or graphic artist may be busy for the next week, so they cannot help you. If you have an employee, you can quickly direct them to undertake the needed assignment. Also, because they would not be full-time employees, freelancers may not understand the nuances of how your firm operates.

8. Self-Evaluation

One disadvantage of being your boss and possibly not having a team (at least initially) is that you do not have a manager who can review your work or give you performance appraisals and bonuses. It is important to develop a good rapport with your clients in order to improve your credibility and the chances of being referred for future jobs.

9. Other Suggestions

It is good to obtain the services of a bookkeeping, payroll, and tax service, especially if you are inexperienced in these areas. You should also evaluate your own physical condition to determine whether performing physical tasks is suitable for you. There are risks associated with working onsite, so if this type of work is not for you, an office job might be more suitable. You could enlist the services of an inspector if one is needed.

Only accept assignments with which you are fully familiar. Do not deplete your resources. If your firm consists of only one or two engineers plus a small staff, you will not have the time or confidence to design a $10 million shopping center. You can negotiate deadlines, though.

One way to garner work is to get on acceptable municipality, county, or branches of the state government, bidders lists. The requirement to become an accepted bidder may be easier than you think!

Conclusion

Keep in mind that when you establish yourself as the owner of a business, you become the president, manager, and engineer for your projects. It could be helpful to talk to other engineers in similar positions to get their firsthand experience and advice. Make a list of pros and cons to help determine if this career move is right for you.

About the Author: Keith Warwick, PE

Keith Warwick has been a licensed professional civil engineer since 1983. He earned a Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering from the University of Davis and completed coursework in Biblical Counseling from Grace Theological Seminary in Winona Lake, Indiana. He has managed his own firm, PATTY and KEITH, INC. since 2008. He has performed civil engineering design, worked as an engineering instructor for Yuba College in Marysville CA, performed safety and environmental inspections, and performed Commercial Real Estate Due Diligence. He is the author of several books including California's Highway 99: Modesto to Bakersfield.

The Benefits of Earning and Maintaining a Professional Engineer License

I have been practicing as a licensed professional engineer (PE) for about four (4) years now, and I can tell you that it is one of my proudest accomplishments and one of the greatest things that I have ever done for myself. I can truly say that the benefits of earning and maintaining a professional engineering license have far exceeded my initial expectations and have helped me continue to take good steps forward (and it has only been four years so far). The benefits of being a PE are much more than just passing the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) and PE exams. You can become a better version of yourself, gain more appreciation for other licensed professionals, help others achieve their goals, expand your opportunities, and develop positive habits. Yes, it is very nice having "PE" written on your business card, but let's delve into more of these often-overlooked benefits.

This blog covers:

1. Become a Better Version of Yourself

2. Find a Newfound Appreciation for Other Professionals

3. Prove Your Abilities and Skills to Yourself

4. Help Others Recognize Their Potential and Achieve Their Goals

5. Expand Your Opportunities

6. Encourage Positive Habits

1. Become a Better Version of Yourself

I first mentioned becoming a better individual. I have always enjoyed engineering and science since there is always something new to learn. Engineering is a dynamic field, and the PE License helped me further my intellectual ambitions. The PE exam appealed to me in the first place because it was a much more practical exam compared to the FE exam. And I likened the PE license to being like a scientist, but without having to obtain a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). Do not get me wrong; obtaining a PhD is an excellent accomplishment, but dissertations just seemed too specialized and did not truly appeal to me. The PE license can help you be a "practical scientist" of sorts, and there is so much I learned along the way. All PE exams offered by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) have practical applications. Maintaining a PE license has helped me with my everyday life too, as I can better understand household items like two-phase and three-phase circuits, as well as gravity sewer pipe.

2. Find a Newfound Appreciation for Other Professionals

Earning and maintaining a professional engineer license has provided me with a newfound appreciation of other licensed professionals and is a humbling experience too. When I first received my PE exam result, I passed the PE exam (good for me), but I also realized that there was much more to learn yet (and I am still learning more with each day). I took the PE Mechanical (Thermal and Fluids Systems) exam in Oct 2018, and I certainly did not know the answer to every question that day. And I am certain that I guessed some questions wrong (NCEES does not release exam scores, and you do not receive a diagnostic report unless you failed the exam). But the entire exam, including the application process, studying, and exam day was certainly an excellent experience. I actually enjoyed the trials and tribulations, and the sense of accomplishment from going through it all.

3. Prove Your Abilities and Skills to Yourself

In fact, I consider the PE license to be one of my greatest accomplishments since I did it largely on my own merit and initiative. I had support from family of course, but I did my own studying and preparation, and conquered the PE exam myself. I have worked with certified public accountants (CPA), licensed landscape architects (LLA), and professional land surveyors (PLS). My one colleague explained to me his own trials and tribulations with earning his architecture license and becoming a registered architect. He too gathered his own study materials, sat for the exam, and is now enjoying similar benefits of earning and maintaining a professional architect license.

4. Help Others Recognize Their Potential and Achieve Their Goals

You can also help other co-workers and colleagues achieve their goals. Since becoming a licensed professional engineer, I have served as a PE reference for other aspiring engineers to gain their Engineer-In-Training (EIT) certification and providing EITs with advice for the PE exam. These other engineers will be going for their PE licensure soon, and they know that they can count on me to help them gain licensure. I am currently licensed in both Pennsylvania and New Jersey; as of this blog post, both states require five (5) references for PE licensure. Other states may vary in the United States, but generally you will need to draft a work experience narrative, gain endorsement from references, and complete a background check for PE licensure, among other items. NCEES may adjust licensure requirements every now and then (but some of this I already know because these are benefits from being a professional engineer!).

Really think about the potential here. You can become a better mentor, develop more leadership qualities. Just by virtue of having a PE license, you will become more valuable at your organization, even become indispensable. Outside of your professional life, you can also help your friends and peers. Many of my undergraduate friends are also engineers and have asked about my PE exam experience. People will come to you for your knowledge and advice on how to pass the PE exam (I first advised my friend on pass the FE exam back in college). As you help others, it will come back to help you be better too.

5. Expand Your Opportunities

Maintaining a professional engineering experience can help to expand your opportunities. I do not want to sound vainglorious, but I have enjoyed some elevated status since passing the PE exam. I received praise and recognition (and a bonus!) from my company when I first shared the exciting news. But remember, you should focus on helping others achieve their goals to form a mutualistic relationship and build a winning culture at your organization (do not let the PE status go to your head). As a licensed professional, you can stand-alone call yourself an engineer; this includes starting your own firm or business, if you wanted to pursue your own venture. You do not need a company or other organization to label yourself an engineer. But also remember, added responsibility comes with the status. In theory, I can PE sign engineering drawings in Pennsylvania and New Jersey but must ensure good quality and ethical standards.

6. Encourage Positive Habits

In addition to the career benefits, I also wanted to discuss how maintaining a professional engineer license encourages positive habits in other aspects of your life. While studying for the PE exam, I developed habits that I still apply today. Becoming a licensed PE does not happen overnight; you need to gain work experience as well as set aside study time, and both require a certain amount of discipline. You are always better from a place of accomplishment. I feel more accomplished with each blog post since the writing and reflection help me to stay fresh and reinforce knowledge.

Coming off graduate school, I had gained some weight from stress-eating (balancing workplace with night school was a challenge). I knew that I would feel sluggish on exam day if I was not in shape, so earning that professional license also led to improved cooking skills (my meals beforehand were boring anyways). Eating healthier provided me with better energy. Commencement was May 2018 and PE exam day was Oct 2018, so I also challenged myself to lose weight in time for exam day. Maintaining the license also encourages you to always keep learning and striving to improve yourself. I learned much just from my exam preparation, so I do not view my continuing education credits as a chore; rather these credit hours are an opportunity for more growth. And these positive habits have spread into other areas of my life.

Conclusion

In summary, earning and maintaining a PE license can only help you to achieve more in life, both professionally and personally. I have not met an individual who regretted obtaining a PE license. The continuous improvement of maintaining helps to evaluate your different strengths and weaknesses. This will help you identify areas of improvement so you can be a better engineer going forward, especially if you are PE signing engineering plans one day. Even the reference handbooks are good for my own personal library, not just for passing the FE and PE exams, but there is a lot of good literature that you can refer to in both your job and everyday life. The path to becoming a PE is not a chore, but rather an enrichment journey and something you can always look back on with pride. All that being said, would you agree that it would look cool to have the "PE" credentials next to your signature?

Interested in obtaining your professional engineering license but unsure where to start? School of PE has been in the business of helping busy individuals pass their professional certification and licensure exams since 2004. We have a wide variety of FE, PE, and SE courses available to help you achieve this goal-visit our website to learn more!

About the Author: Gregory Nicosia

Gregory Nicosia, PE is an engineer who has been practicing in the industry for eight years. His background includes natural gas, utilities, mechanical, and civil engineering. He earned his chemical engineering undergraduate degree at Drexel University (2014) and master's in business administration (MBA) from Penn State Harrisburg (2018). He received his EIT designation in 2014 and PE license in 2018. Mr. Nicosia firmly believes in continuing to grow his skillset to become a more well-rounded engineer and adapt to an ever-changing world.

How Difficult Is the PE Exam, Really?

The Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exam is the second exam required for professional engineering licensure in the United States. If you are at this stage, then you have already passed the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam to obtain your Engineer-In-Training (EIT) certification. This also means you are already familiar with the exam experience and the steps needed to achieve success for a passing result. The PE exam is different from the FE exam because it is a more practical exam; the FE exam is more based on your undergraduate courses (i.e., if you have been doing your work in engineering undergrad, then you have already been preparing for the FE exam). But how difficult is the PE exam, really? Truthfully, the PE exam really is not that difficult. The exam is more a test on your organizational skills and prior preparation.

In this blog:

1. Organization

2. Textbook Knowledge

3. Learn Your Strengths and Weaknesses

4. Determining the Time You Need

5. The Most Effective Form of Studying (In My Opinion)

6. Simulate the Exam Environment

7. Pencil-and-Paper vs. CBT Exams

8. Reference Handbook

1. Organization

Being organized is the most critical element on exam day. As you know from the FE exam, you are on the clock with a set time limit for both morning and afternoon sessions. But there is no true timetable on how much time you spend on each question. You must use your own judgement and manage your time wisely. The PE exam content is not meant to have a lot of trick questions trying to fool you, but you need to know where to look up certain information in the PE Reference Handbook for your respective discipline (e.g., Civil, Mechanical, etc.). I will say that organization is key to you not losing time trying to remember the locations of certain topics and equations. You are not required to memorize specific equations for the PE exam, but you must know the general subject matter (e.g., for PE Mechanical, the Darcy-Weisbach Equation is in the Fluid Flow section).

2. Textbook Knowledge

While the PE exam is more practical than the FE exam, there still is a good share of textbook knowledge. When reading and understanding a question, be straightforward with your methodologies and solutions. Do not overthink things; if the question is truly unclear, then chances are other individuals are struggling with this question too. Do not fret either; if a certain question has an overwhelming number of wrong answers, then that question would be defective and removed from scoring consideration. And if you are already organized with the Reference Handbook sections, you will not lose valuable time frantically searching the handbook for certain information.

3. Learn Your Strengths and Weaknesses

Before exam day, awareness of your strengths and weaknesses should be part of your exam preparation. If you are like me, you are probably stronger with some topics than others. As Socrates once said, "to know thyself is the beginning of wisdom." If you have already attempted the PE exam (but did not pass), then you should have a diagnostic report covering areas of deficiency. Like the FE exam, the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) lists the range of certain number of questions for each topic and sub-topic. There is no defined exact number of questions for each section. The question format is somewhat different each time, to avoid cheating and uphold the integrity of the PE exam.

4. Determining the Time You Need

Your awareness will lead to being able to determine the time that you need for certain questions. I would recommend first looking through the test and identifying which questions will require more time than others (this comes back to your strengths and weaknesses). Obviously, you want to focus on your strengths first, since this will help to build confidence and allocate more time for the tougher questions later. There will also be conceptual questions that do not require actual calculations; you might be able to answer these very quickly.

5. The Most Effective Form of Studying (In My Opinion)

Being organized might be the most critical element on exam day, but studying is the most critical element leading up to exam day. The best form of studying is solving questions. Repetition helps to build muscle memory; you should reach the level where you already know how to start solving a question without much thought. This too will save time, trying to understand if the question is related to Thermodynamics or Mechanics of Materials. Solving will also help you gain the conceptual aspect; you will start to see different trends (e.g., inverse relationships) as you solve more questions.

6. Simulate the Exam Environment

Practice solving the questions as if you were in the exam room. I would recommend buying an exam-approved calculator ahead of time and becoming familiar with its functions. This was odd for me at first, since I had become accustomed to using more advanced calculators (TI-83) with my engineering courses. I had to regress my technology backwards but again this is required to ensure exam integrity (advanced calculators have additional storage space and coding available to enable an unfair advantage). Another challenge is finding time to study. Most FE exam studying can occur just by progressing in your undergraduate curriculum, but the PE exam requires additional studying time, especially since you have probably been working in the industry for a little while now and are a little removed from academia.

7. Pencil-and-Paper vs. CBT Exams

When I took the PE exam (Oct 2018), at the time, you were directed to bring your own notes. Since then, most PE exams have transitioned towards Computer-Based Testing (CBT) over the past few years. This next discussion point is about knowing the exam format and the tools you have available (e.g., the correct calculator). You should know all exam day rules and policies, reviewing the checklist periodically and certainly the week leading up to the exam. The last thing you want is to forfeit this opportunity because you missed an item. Currently, the approved calculator models include Casio, Hewlett Packard, and Texas Instruments (TI-36X was my calculator of choice). Review the exam format so you are prepared and feel better about the exam.

8. Reference Handbook

You must also be aware of the reference handbook for your respective discipline. There is a trade-off with the new exam format; you do not need to worry about which books and materials to bring (I saw one person bring a hand wagon!), but you must know the PE handbook since that is your only reference resource. Certain equations and information will become automatic from solving practice questions (muscle memory that I mentioned earlier). And since these basic equations (e.g., temperature conversions) become memory, you do not need to use extra time looking up the basic information. You will want to dedicate this time to reviewing more advanced equations that do not need actual memorization. School of PE also offers review questions so you can gain practice from referencing the PE handbook. I would recommend School of PE since their review courses are aligned with the NCEES exam format; that is, if the equation is not in the reference handbook, it probably will not appear on the PE exam. I will certainly say that School of PE was instrumental towards helping me pass the PE exam.

Conclusion

Once you have the minimum four (4) years work experience, there is no additional timetable for the PE exam. It is just a matter of when you feel ready. I briefly contemplated waiting another year but also realized that I can continue to learn on my own. Also, you will learn some tips from working in the industry, but the PE exam is ultimately separate from your workplace. Ultimately, if you take the time to prepare, the PE exam really is not that difficult. The keys are being organized, keeping yourself focused, and maintaining unwavering composure. But always remember that NCEES is the national body that oversees the PE exam, so they will dictate the PE exam format. You must adhere to their rules, which include their calculator and reference handbook policies. But everything else leading up to exam day is on you to decide on your best plan to conquer the PE exam. And of course, always be sure to check back with School of PE for more blog posts and exam tips!

About the Author: Gregory Nicosia

Gregory Nicosia, PE is an engineer who has been practicing in the industry for eight years. His background includes natural gas, utilities, mechanical, and civil engineering. He earned his chemical engineering undergraduate degree at Drexel University (2014) and master's in business administration (MBA) from Penn State Harrisburg (2018). He received his EIT designation in 2014 and PE license in 2018. Mr. Nicosia firmly believes in continuing to grow his skillset to become a more well-rounded engineer and adapt to an ever-changing world.

The Lost Art of 'Take 5'

So, I've had my PE license for 10 years. And still, it's arguably my hardest-fought professional achievement. If you are in the process of preparing for this exam, then you know exactly what I'm talking about!

Now, before I become more irrelevant than I already am (at the ripe old age of 37), I wanted to provide some useful test-day words of wisdom. Something beyond "study hard," "take a review class," or even "take a walk at the scheduled break."

I think I've finally found it. Take 5!

This blog covers:

1. Test day is finally here!

2. What does it mean to really "take 5"?

3. What is happening to your body during the exam?

4. So how can I regulate during the exam?

5. So how can I regulate before the exam?

6. How does take 5 translate to the "non-exam" engineering world?

1. Test day is finally here!

Yay. You get in your car, try not to drink too much coffee because you couldn't sleep last night, and drive down to your friendly neighborhood testing center.

You park the car without taking off anyone's door. Nice. Well done. You've got this exam, baby! New professional license, here we come.

Then you get out of the car. Despite a paranoid part of you saying you can get thrown out of the exam for even looking at someone in the parking lot BEFORE THE TEST, you see someone also going to an exam. What test are they going to take? Seems like a harmless question to ask.

So, you ask. And the person returns a death glare. And it catches you by surprise because you expected a friendly answer. WRONG! Probably an engineer, no social skills, right?! Jeesh.

After you stop talking, you just explore the scene silently. You see more anxious test takers with that "deer-in-the-headlights" look. And you know they're all just scared. And yet they look and act so angry. And then you suddenly realize that you have the same look, so no wonder no one is even trying to talk to you anymore.

You keep walking through the door where the exam proctor greets you with a less subtle version of the look. They still look serious but somehow used to it. The proctor then asks you several questions and escorts you to a locker where you put away all your valuables. Then you're led into a room full of cubicle walls and cameras.

The inner thoughts ring loud in your head. Get me out of here! The sooner we get the exam done, the sooner the pain will be over! But what if we go too fast and make mistakes? And what if I don't have enough time to finish the exam?

Whoa. Pause. Listen to your body. Take a 5-minute break if you need one.

A 5-minute break isn't necessarily a new idea. "Take 5." Pretty common slang, right? So, what does that look like in a PE test environment?

2. What does it mean to really "take 5"?

NCEES already provides two types of breaks during the exam: scheduled and unscheduled. The one scheduled break is 25 minutes in duration, at the midpoint of testing. Unscheduled breaks are at will and taken by raising your hand to the proctor, at which time you are escorted out of the exam room.

During an unscheduled break, you're allowed to move and go outside; you have access to beverages, food, and items on the Pearson VUE Comfort Aid List (https://home.pearsonvue.com/Test-takers/Accommodations/Pearson-VUE-Comfort-Aid-List-PDF.aspx). But by the time you get checked out, take your break, and checked back in, 10 minutes or more have likely gone by. And most importantly, during unscheduled breaks, the exam clock keeps ticking. Maybe not the best idea if you're feeling already stressed and overwhelmed!

So here is a third option, one you won't find in the NCEES guide. You guessed it! Take 5.

Now 5 minutes really means 3 minutes for some people and 7 for others, but the "take 5" should be a break shorter than 10 minutes (otherwise just take an unscheduled break)! The intent of the take 5 approach is to disarm the battle between brain and body, who are both vying for your energy and resources. The brain says, "I need to remember how to use this equation." But the body, all jacked up and forced to sit for hours, says, "I need to leave this place." While the brain rightfully consumes our conscious energy during the exam, the body's regulation of our fight/flight response consumes most of our unconscious energy.

3. What is happening to your body during the exam?

A more recent development in the field of neurobiology is the Polyvagal Theory. This stuff is some pretty heady medical lingo, so I'll keep it as engineer-friendly as possible. Better yet, watch the video from the guy who coined it. Trust me, it's easier than reading the book - Dr. Stephen Porges: What is the Polyvagal Theory.

Ok wow. Did you catch all that???? Yeah, me either.

In essence, Polyvagal Theory describes the way the circuits in the brainstem work, and our nervous system is functionally like an upside-down triangle.

"It percolates information up the brainstem to the higher brain structures enabling access to different brain areas," says Dr. Porges. "So, when we are in safe states, we can access high cortical functions. But when we are in danger states, those systems turn off and we get defensive."

Interesting. Can you see the translation to test day?

Polyvagal Theory states that the higher we stay in the structure, the more access we have to diverse information. I would guess this would include information such as engineering experience, study material, or a School of PE review course. You know, things that would be useful in passing the exam.

Dr. Porges argues, "if you are in a constantly dangerous environment, your nervous system is going to find it difficult to detect safety." So, to be more in a state of safety seeking is to be in a state of more fight or flight and a low threshold to react.

"When you're in that state, you're going to misread other people's cues, so you're more likely to see neutral faces as being aggressive. And you're more likely to see fearful faces as if they were angry, so you can really confound difficult relationships, and you won't be able to use people to self-regulate."

Boom. Well played, Dr. Porges.

4. So how can I regulate during the exam?

I leave the answer to that question to Dr. Porges' counterpart, Deb Dana, LCSW. Deb has translated polyvagal theory into "real world" applications beyond theory. Deb runs the Rhythm of Regulation program out of Southern Maine and authored the book, Polyvagal Exercises for Safety and Connection.

In that book, Dana provides therapists and patients with great examples of regulating activities, such as yoga, swimming, yelling with no one around, going to a spin class, and connecting with safe people like family and friends. Basically, a lot of stuff not applicable to an exam environment.

Nice.

But think about it - adapted to an exam environment, strategies may include stretching your feet and hands, looking out a window at nature, or doing some breathing exercises. And since connection with safe people is not possible, what about mentally recalling an encouraging message from a loved one?

Now, there are rules to what you're allowed to do. Electronic devices and other potential reference material cannot be accessed for obvious reasons. Those are back in your locker. And you can't eat anything because your calculator isn't edible.

5. So how can I regulate before the exam?

Practicing your unique take 5 at home during a practice test is the best preparation you can give your body. And not just a practice test from your home office - try to find a place that best simulates the test environment, like an office, to make your body feel all the more "unregulated."

Or maybe have a friend host an "exam party" or get together to share safe social encouragement with people you care about. (I guess it's only awkward if you don't pass?).

Remember - you aren't just training your brain for the exam. It's a full-body experience!

Your body will thank you, though, if you don't grind too hard every time you study for the exam. So, if you have young children, engage them during study time by holding them in your lap while watching a practice exam. Or text a friend and request some encouragement. That safe engagement may be a nice memory to recall during a take 5 at the testing center!

6. How does take 5 translate to the "non-exam" engineering world?

In the real world, more of Deb Dana's regulating activities are more "acceptable" to engage in. Ironically, with more people working at home now than ever, there is a lack of both safe and social engagement opportunities, but there are also opportunities to freely commit to regulating activities.

Recall that the best regulating activity, according to Polyvagal theory, is safe and social connection with other people. Friends (and family, assuming they feel safe) are often conveniently accessible in a remote-work environment.

Conclusion - Take 5 takes practice

There is no real definition for take 5. Why? Because it might not even be 5 minutes. Is it 3 minutes? 7 minutes? Let your body tell you what it needs. Take some practice exams and practice your take 5. Try mini-naps with your eyes closed, weirdly useful chair stretches, anything to make you feel safer. Get it dialed before the exam. Just remember - make sure you fit within the rules of what NCEES allows.

It's probably better than trying to figure it out during the exam - you'll only be using lower brain structures anyway! And who knows, those fellow test-takers and the exam proctor might not feel so scary after all.

Also remember - if you do need special accommodations beyond take 5, scheduled, and unscheduled breaks, do not hesitate to apply using the following link: ADA exam accommodations - NCEES.

Best of luck on the exam!

If you are wanting to boost your career with an engineering license, look no further than School of PE! For over 18 years, we have helped thousands of busy individuals pass their professional certification and licensure exams and look forward to helping you next! Sign up for a course today.

About the Author: Benjamin Cote

Ben Cote, PE, ENV SP passed his Civil (Geotechnical) PE Exam in 2012 after engaging in School of PE online preparation courses. He is currently employed as a Technical Sales Manager with AeroAggregates of North America, and is the founder of EngiMentor.com, a social media project for making engineering more accessible. He lives with his wife, 3 kids and 2 dogs in Colchester, CT.

Field Sampling to Support Environmental Remediation

Are you interested in what remediation engineers do? As a remediation engineer, my work revolves around the cleanup and restoration of contaminated sites. There are many steps involved in remediating a site, which can take years from start to finish. The first step for remediating a site is determining the extent of contamination by conducting environmental field sampling.

In this blog:

1. Environmental Field Sampling

2. Former Pesticide Manufacturing Facility Site

3. Sampling New Wells

4. Before the Sampling Event

5. Upon Arrival

6. Recording Water Quality Parameters

7. Groundwater Sampling

8. Flexibility During Fieldwork

1. Environmental Field Sampling

Environmental field sampling encompasses multiple media - soil, groundwater, sediment, surface water, or air. The media sampled is dependent on the site, its history, and whether any previous remedial investigations have been performed. Sampling data allows us to determine the nature and extent of contamination and to refine the conceptual site model to give us a better understanding of how the contamination occurred and to inform the remedy selection.

Environmental field sampling is a great introduction to remediation for any entry-level environmental engineer. By participating in field sampling, a new engineer learns both technical and leadership skills by managing a team, performing a task, and executing it to completion. Most of my field experience was spent groundwater sampling, so I'll talk you through what a typical week spent groundwater sampling is like.

2. Former Pesticide Manufacturing Facility Site

The site we are working on together this week is a former pesticide manufacturing facility. It's in a small, rural town, and the site is a large, empty parcel. The groundwater from the site is contaminated with chlorinated volatile organic compounds and semi-volatile organic compounds. It's also contaminated with some metals, including arsenic. This site is based on a site I manage in real life. When I started on this project over ten years ago, I was a junior engineer assisting with field sampling. I eventually became the field manager before being responsible for data interpretation and analysis for remedy selection. Now I am responsible for the remedy implementation, which has been very rewarding.

3. Sampling New Wells

Our job this week is to sample the new wells that were installed last month to help us delineate the extent of the plume which has extended off-site on neighboring parcels. Fortunately, we've confirmed through previous studies that this contamination doesn't extend to the deeper aquifer where residents get their drinking water.

4. Before the Sampling Event

First, we'll need to prepare for the sampling event. We will need to review the data from previous groundwater monitoring events to determine the clean-to-dirty order for sampling wells. Even though we clean all our equipment through a three-step rinse after each well is sampled, this step is still important since we'll want to minimize cross-contamination as much as possible.

We'll also need to order our equipment. The type of equipment we procure will depend on the site contaminants of concern (COCs) and depth to groundwater. But typically, we'll get a pump, water level meter, and water quality meter to help us monitor parameters as we sample, like temperature, dissolved oxygen, and specific conductivity. We will also work closely with the project chemist to determine the number of samples we'll need to take for what COCs and what quality control samples are needed.

We'll need to bring a site map, any logs, and labels for sampling, sampling bottles, sampling equipment, and a field kit, which will usually consist of a standard set of tools and random items like fishhooks (in case you drop something in the well and need to fish it out - it certainly happens!).

We'll also need to make sure we have 55-gallon drums at the site to containerize our purge water from each well. This purge water is tested separately to help us understand whether it is hazardous or non-hazardous waste, which determines what kind of landfill the drum is transported to.

We'll also need to make sure we bring all our safety gear. This typically includes the site-specific health and safety plan (HASP), safety glasses, nitrile gloves, and steel-toed boots. Depending on the site conditions and/or client, we may also need to bring a hard hat, hi-visibility vest, or other safety gear. For the site we're sampling at together this week, we don't have any client-specific safety requirements. However, we'll want to bring snake chaps and steel-toed rain boots since the site gets very soggy when it rains. We will also bring light, breathable clothing for our time spent in the sun, along with a hat, sunscreen, and insect repellant with DEET.

5. Upon Arrival

Once we drive to the site, we'll have a health and safety tailgate meeting and talk about the potential hazards we might encounter. Today this means heat stress and biological hazards (snakes, friendly ticks desperate to hitch a ride, mosquitoes, and fire ants and wasps that love setting up real estate right next to the wells). It's supposed to rain today, so we'll need to be careful about driving around the site. We've gotten the truck stuck in mud before on this site, and the nearest towing company is 30 minutes away.

We start our day by conducting a synoptic gauge. This means we'll measure the depth to water in each well, along with the total depth of the well (if needed). This will help capture the potentiometric surface of the aquifer(s) we are collecting samples from. We will also use this synoptic gauge to perform an inspection of the monitoring wells to determine whether any need repairs. For example, are any locks missing? Are the concrete well pads cracked? Are there any wasp nests inside the well? We've learned to open well caps from behind for that reason - it's a nasty surprise to open a well and have a wasp fly in your face.

6. Recording Water Quality Parameters

Once we are done with the synoptic gauge, we'll start sampling with the cleanest well first. Once we set up the pump, we'll write down water quality parameters (typically depth to water, temperature, specific conductivity, turbidity, oxidation reduction potential, and dissolved oxygen) at predetermined intervals (usually every 3 to 5 minutes). With low-flow sampling, we'll need to keep the flow generally between 100 to 250 milliliters per minute to avoid stressing the aquifer and to collect a representative sample. Once our readings are generally consistent, it means that the well is stabilized and we can collect a sample. We'll want to make sure our samples are collected per the standard operating procedures for the project and/or client.

Once we are done collecting our samples, we'll clean our equipment using a three-step rinse. Then it's time to tidy up, dump our purge water in the 55-gallon drum, and head to the next well.

7. Groundwater Sampling

Groundwater sampling is fun but can consist of long, tiring days. For the site we're working on together, we have to wake up early to beat the heat. We also have to ship samples every day. The closest FedEx is 30 minutes away, and the last pickup is at four. Packing the coolers to ensure the samples arrive safely and within temperature requirements (i.e., lots of ice) takes time and care, and making sure the cooler is delivered on time before the last pickup is a daily adventure.

8. Flexibility During Fieldwork

Field work means thinking quickly when something goes wrong. Did the pump break? Learn to fix it. Is the site muddy? Time for someone to walk a path to the wells to make sure the site is drivable. Is a baby cow trying to eat your well keys, or the cows won't move out of the way? (You'd be surprised how obstinate and belligerent cows can be, even with a truck honking at them to move out of the way). You can't find a well? Have to fish out tubing that fell into the well? Are random people wandering on site and into your workspace? Did the well go dry and is no longer producing water? Is there a large swarm of bees heading your direction while you are sampling? All of these are things that have happened to me in the field. Learning to react quickly to solve problems is a necessary skill for success.

Conclusion

After a long week, we've sampled our last well. We cleaned up and containerized our trash and collected composite samples of the purge water. We drop off samples at FedEx and drive back home, accomplished and eager to see the data so we know what the next steps are.

And what are the next steps? We'll likely need to continue monitoring so we have enough data to determine trends. As we get a better idea of plume stability and data trends, we can start evaluating potential remedies for the site. Depending on the data trends, COCs and concentrations, and cleanup requirements set by the applicable regulatory agency, the remedy can be anything from monitored natural attenuation (which relies on physical, chemical, or biological processes to reduce the concentrations of contaminants without an active remedy), to groundwater injections which involve injection of an amendment to chemically break down the contaminants. There are many different groundwater remedies that can be selected for a site which we'll discuss for the next installment!

Do you want to pursue a career in environmental engineering? Consider partnering with School of PE, a leading exam prep provider, to help you succeed with confidence!

About the Author: Jennifer Stark

Jennifer Stark is an environmental engineer and is licensed in the state of Texas. She works from home in Indiana, where she lives with her husband and feisty dachshund/canine coworker. In her free time, she enjoys craft projects, playing music, and complaining about the cold weather.

Determinacy and Stability on the FE Civil Exam

For those taking the FE Civil exam, one of the structural topics one should be familiar with is determinacy and stability. This blog post will provide a brief overview of these concepts, review how basic structures can be evaluated for determinacy, and briefly discuss some of the basic methods for solving the reactions of indeterminate structures.

In this blog,

1. Statically Determinate and Statically Indeterminate Structural Systems

2. Trusses

3. Stability

4. General Approaches to Problem-Solving

5. General Force Method

1. Statically Determinate and Statically Indeterminate Structural Systems

In structural analysis, there are considered to be two different types of stable structural systems: statically determinate and statically indeterminate. A stable structure is one whose forces are in equilibrium (as opposed, for example, to one which is in motion). Those stable structures which are determinate can be solved by statics using the three familiar equations of equilibrium. Namely, these are: The sum of forces in the vertical (or y-axis) direction is equal to zero; the sum of forces in the horizontal (or x-axis) direction is equal to zero; and the sum of moments is equal to zero. Again, such structural problems which can be solved using only these equations are known as statically determinate structures. Statically indeterminate structures, by contrast, are those which cannot be solved by these equations alone. These are also sometimes referred to as redundant structures.

The simple method by which one can determine whether a structure is statically determinate or indeterminate (and if indeterminate, by what degree) is the following: Determine the number of support reactions to solve for, and then compare them to the number of static equilibrium equations, which is three. If the number of support reactions is less than or equal to three, then it is a statically determinate structure. If it contains more than three support reactions to solve for, then it is statically indeterminate. The degree to which a structure is indeterminate is equal to the support reactions minus three.

For example, if a simple beam is supported on one end by a pin support and on the other end by a roller support, the structure can be evaluated for determinacy as follows. The pin support, since it prevents translation in the horizontal and vertical directions (but allows for rotation) has two unknown reaction forces, that of the x-direction and the y-direction. The roller support, since it prevents translation in the vertical direction (but allows for translation in the horizontal direction and for rotation), has one unknown reaction force, that of the y-direction. With a total of three unknown support reactions, which is equal to the number of static equilibrium equations, the structure is statically determinate, and (whatever the loading conditions on the beam) the reactions can consequently be solved for utilizing those three equations alone.

If, however, one were to take the example of a beam which is supported with two pins and a roller, it would be evaluated as follows. Each of the two pin supports would have two unknowns (again, the vertical and horizontal reaction force components), and the roller would have one (again, the vertical reaction force). The total number of the support reaction forces, therefore, is five. As this is in excess of the number of static equilibrium equations by two, the system is statically indeterminate by a degree of two.

Taking one further example - a cantilevered beam with a fixed support connection at one end and a roller at the center, it can be evaluated for determinacy as follows. The fixed support, as it prevents translation in the vertical and horizontal directions and, additionally, as it prevents rotation at the support, is found to have three unknown reaction forces (x-direction, y-direction, and moment about the connection point). Adding these three unknowns to the one unknown of the roller support yields a total of four, and thus the structure is found to be indeterminate to the degree of one.

It should be noted that the above examples relate to what is known as external determinacy (or indeterminacy, as the case may be), but it is also possible to have structures which are internally indeterminate (even if they are externally determinate). One example of an internally indeterminate structure is that of a truss with an excess of members such that the forces within them cannot be calculated using the static equilibrium equations alone.

2. Trusses

In evaluating a truss (within a two-dimensional plan) for internal determinacy, the following method can be used. Count the number of truss members and add this number to the number of support reactions. If this number is greater than the number of joints in the truss multiplied by two, then the structure is indeterminate. If this is the case, the degree to which it is indeterminate would be the difference then between the two numbers.

3. Stability

In terms of stability, while statically determinate structures are stable, a failure at any restraint of any of the supports results in instability of the system. By contrast, indeterminate structures, by virtue of the fact that there are more restraints than necessary for stability, are considered to be redundant systems. That is to say, the overall structure has greater potential to remain stable if a local failure were to occur within the system.

4. General Approaches to Problem-Solving

While exam-takers of the FE exam are unlikely to need to solve for reactions in a full analysis problem of an indeterminate structure, it is worth having knowledge of the general approaches to solving for these types of problems. These include the general force (or unit load) method, Castigliano's method, the moment distribution method, and the slope deflection method. For indeterminate building frames, there are still other methods, including the portal method and the cantilever method. As the general force method is one of the more common basic approaches, a brief overview of the method is provided below.

5. General Force Method

In the general force method, a loaded indeterminate structure is examined such that all support reaction components are identified. Then the structure is reimagined as one in which all redundant support components are removed so that a determinate stable structure remains (that is to say, one with only three support reaction components supporting the structure). This imagined version of the structure is sometimes referred to as the "primary structure" for the method. The primary structure is analyzed under the given loading conditions to determine the displacements which occur at the locations of the redundant support components of the original structure. The next step is to remove the original loading conditions and analyze a "secondary structure" which corresponds to the primary structure along with a unit force load applied at the location of the redundant support of the original structure. The displacement which occurs for this secondary structure is then solved for under this unit force load. This is done individually for each of the structure's redundant support restraints. Finally, through setting up equations in which the sums of the displacements are set to zero, the unknown reaction components of the structure's redundant supports can be solved for.

Conclusion

In summary, exam-takers of the FE Civil exam should be familiar with the concepts of determinacy and stability and be able to determine whether a particular two-dimensional structure is statically determinate or indeterminate and, if indeterminate, by what degree. The above examples describe the approach. While support reactions of determinate structures can be solved for using only the static equations of equilibrium, solving for indeterminate structures is a more involved process. There are a number of methods which have been developed for solving problems involving indeterminate structures. While exam-takers will not be calculating reactions for indeterminate structures on the exam, a general understanding of the most common methods, such as the general force method, aids in an understanding of the general approach to solving for indeterminate structures.

Do you want to pursue a career in civil engineering? Consider partnering with School of PE, one of the leading exam prep providers, to help you succeed with confidence!

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

7 PE Exam Success Habits

When I look back on my Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exam experience, I sometimes reflect on achieving this milestone. There were seven (7) PE exam success habits that I utilized in my exam preparation. I am writing these habits for the PE exam because the process was more challenging than the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam. The FE exam application is simpler than the PE exam, so the FE process was overall easier. Now let's get to it!

The blog covers:

1. Success Habit #1: Find the Right Motivation

2. Success Habit #2: Get Off to a Hot Start with Every Morning

3. Success Habit #3: Select a Pre-Recorded Online Review Course

4. Success Habit #4: Enjoy Other Hobbies/Interests

5. Success Habit #5: Close Your Mind to All Criticism and Self-Doubt

6. Success Habit #6: Exercise then Relax Before Exam Day

7. Success Habit #7: Confront the Exam Head-On

1. Success Habit #1: Find the Right Motivation

I originally started looking into the PE exam as just the next step. Graduate school was my focus for a while, since my schedule was the workplace on weekdays, class on weeknights, and homework on weekends. That may sound mundane, but graduate school was good for both my personal and professional growth. And I was also continuing to gain practical engineering experience at my job. So, it was productive all-around.

This growth and enrichment became my motivation. There was much knowledge circulating around me, and I realized that if I could learn more, I could become better, both personally and professionally. My recommendation is to find your own motivation, something other than just more money or some other kind of bonus. Yes, I received a small bonus for passing the PE exam, but there was so much more that I had gained than just the dollar amount.

2. Success Habit #2: Get Off to a Hot Start with Every Morning

Preparation is the most critical element needed to pass the PE exam. It is interesting how you spend hours on end studying for just the one exam day, but all the preparation is key when you truly need it the most. I am more of a morning person, so this is how the idea first came to me. I realized that oversleeping did not really benefit me, since I was wasting extra time by either just lying in bed or trying to fall back asleep.

When I first started waking up earlier and accomplishing tasks, I was feeling better about the day ahead. Everyone else is just waking up, but you have already set the tone for a good day. I would recommend completing errands first thing in the morning, then you have the rest of the day ahead for PE exam preparation. And since you have already completed your other checklist items, you are already a couple steps ahead of everyone else. As I write this blog post, I can tell you that I got off to a hot start this morning!

3. Success Habit #3: Select a Pre-Recorded Online Review Course

I would recommend a review course to help with your studying preparation. I am suggesting a pre-recorded online review course since this allows yourself the time to study and learn at your own pace. I took the PE Mechanical (Thermal and Fluids Systems) exam, and the pre-recorded course option offered by School of PE was instrumental towards my success. I was able to start and end the review sessions depending on my schedule and did not have to abide by the predetermined webinar schedule for taking breaks.

You should not rush yourself in trying to study a certain amount of content in a limited amount of time; rather, you should use the time that you need. You will probably find that some subjects require more studying than others. The PE exam format lists a range of a certain number of questions, so you must be sufficiently prepared in all the core subjects. I will say that I am not too big on studying in groups or live webinars. When studying in groups, I find that you can become distracted too easily and you may try to adopt another person's study habits which may not suit your own.

4. Success Habit #4: Enjoy Other Hobbies/Interests

Preparation for the PE exam requires time. I will be honest here; you will probably have less time for a social life and other activities (but I can also assure you that pursuing a PE license is certainly worthwhile). But you should still try to allocate some time for other hobbies and interests. Diversions are good since they can help you stay fresh, so you are not just staring at textbooks and notes all day. Also, if you dedicate ALL your spare time to passing the PE exam, you are placing excessive pressure on yourself. I had a friend that did not pass the PE exam on the first try and felt even worse because he was too lopsided on study time, neglecting other activities altogether. I studied much during summer 2018, but was still attending yoga classes, volunteering with my church, and improving my cooking skills (eating healthy helps with a hot start, and of course breakfast is the most important meal of the day!).

5. Success Habit #5: Close Your Mind to All Criticism and Self-Doubt

I do feel that one of the success habits should be about facing past moments that were not your best. We have all experienced failure at some point; maybe you did not receive approval to sit for the PE exam on your first application attempt, or maybe you did not pass the first time. But it is important to eliminate that self-doubt and close your mind to all criticisms. Usually, I would recommend keeping your eyes open to new activities and expanding your scope. But in the case of passing the PE exam, I would suggest having more of a "tunnel vision" where you have laser focus on the passing goal.

Do not worry about past workplace mistakes either. I have certainly made mistakes myself; it is okay to make mistakes, as you should always keep moving yourself forward. Even if you do not feel ready for the PE exam, you should still pursue it anyways. I only had the minimum four years work experience and briefly contemplated waiting another year. But I decided to go for it (and got it).

6. Success Habit #6: Exercise then Relax Before Exam Day

I took the PE exam on Friday but made sure to attend my martial arts class the night before. As I mentioned earlier, you should still engage in other interests to keep yourself fresh and in a healthy, positive mindset. Passing the PE exam is not a sprint; the preparation is a journey to success. It certainly does not happen overnight. But it is important to clear your head the night before, so you feel that final preparation overnight.

Exercising at my martial arts class was the final puzzle piece to get into that healthy mindset so I would be truly ready. The exercise helps you to destress so you have that Exam mentality. Knowing myself, I may have psyched myself out trying to review every topic last minute the night before. I would have probably stayed up later and missed out on the rest needed for a proper hot start.

7. Success Habit #7: Confront the Exam Head-On

The seventh and final success habit comes on exam day. You are going to feel different emotions; I was feeling mostly a combination of excitement and anxiety. There was some fear, but I was already in a positive mindset from exercising the night before (Habit #6). And I also got off to a hot start that morning with a healthy breakfast (Habit #2). You can see that I was putting it all together. When you arrive to your exam location, you will find that everyone else is feeling that same atmosphere (pressure will probably be 1 atm!). This is a good reason why you should not panic or lose composure.

When you first receive the PE exam, look through the test. I seldom do this, but I checked ahead this time. Some questions will require longer methodologies than other questions, so you should identify early on which questions are shorter than others. Remember, the PE exam is not a sprint. You have the time to take a few moments to assess the entire exam. It is okay to revisit questions later and certainly okay to answer some questions wrong (just not too many). During the exam break (after the morning session), I overheard other examination candidates voicing similar concerns. Never quit; keep pushing ahead and tackle that exam!

Conclusion

I do not believe you should assign a certain number of hours for studying and preparation. Everyone has different study habits. I am providing my own insights and observations, but you must ultimately decide on your best strategy. There is no true universal equation for success on the PE exam (I have already checked the different NCEES Reference Handbooks), so you may need to identify your own success habits. But you can certainly use these seven (7) success habits as a guide. And of course, be sure to check back with School of PE for more blog posts.

Interested in earning your professional engineering license? School of PE's comprehensive courses provide what you need to succeed when exam day arrives! Register today.

About the Author: Gregory Nicosia

Gregory Nicosia, PE is an engineer who has been practicing in the industry for eight years. His background includes natural gas, utilities, mechanical, and civil engineering. He earned his chemical engineering undergraduate degree at Drexel University (2014) and master's in business administration (MBA) from Penn State Harrisburg (2018). He received his EIT designation in 2014 and PE license in 2018. Mr. Nicosia firmly believes in continuing to grow his skillset to become a more well-rounded engineer and adapt to an ever-changing world.

Phase Relationships of Soil

Those taking the FE Civil exam should be familiar with the basic concepts in soil mechanics related to the phase relationships of soil. Phase relationships are also covered on the PE exam, regardless of which depth version of the exam is taken. This blog aims to provide an overview of soil phase relationship concepts, terminology, and the basic calculations involved in solving for soil component volumes and weights.

In this blog:

1. Soil Phases

2. Specific Weight of Water and the Specific Gravity of Soil Solids

3. Soil's Five Potential Variables

4. Volume and Weight of Water and Solids

5. Other Terms to Know

6. Dry Unit Weight vs. Saturated Unit Rate

1. Soil Phases

Soil can be understood to have three "phases." Specifically, these are the solids within a soil, the voids between these solids which are occupied by air, and the voids between the solids which are filled with water. The various proportions of these phases within a given soil contribute to its behavior and properties.

2. Specific Weight of Water and the Specific Gravity of Soil Solids

Before discussing concepts and calculations related to the soil phases themselves, it is necessary to understand the specific weight of water and the specific gravity of the solids portion of soils. The constant value known as the specific weight of water can be understood as the weight of water in pounds within a cubic foot of volume of water. Specifically, the value of water's specific weight is 62.4 lb/cubic ft. The constant value known as the specific gravity of soil solids is a dimensionless unit which can be understood as the ratio of the typical density of the soil solids within a soil to the density of water within a unit volume. It is not actually a consistent number but varies by the type of soil being considered, and it is also an average value based on the different types of particles within the soil (it being assumed that the soil is homogenous). It can be taken, however, as typically ranging between 2.6 and 2.85. For some organic soils, however, it can be substantially lower. The value for a particular soil can be determined by performing a specific gravity test on the soil. For the purposes of the exam, if a calculation problem involving soil phases is given, this value would likely be given so that some other value related to the soil composition can be determined.

3. Soil's Five Potential Variables

In terms of phase relationships, soil can be understood to involve five potential variables. Namely, these are the individual volumes of the solids, air (empty voids), and water (filled voids), as well as the weights of the solids and the water. Note that the weight of the air-filled voids is considered negligible. Given the information we have about the specific weight of water and the specific gravity of soil solids, any of the five variables could be solved for if three are given. The exam taker should therefore be familiar with how to solve for any of the variables by understanding the relationships between them, as follows.

4. Volume and Weight of Water and Solids

The volume of water can be calculated by dividing the weight of water by the specific weight of water. The volume of solids can be determined by dividing the weight of solids by the product of the specific gravity of soil solids and the specific weight of water. Likewise, the weight of water can be determined by multiplying the volume of water by the specific gravity of water. The weight of solids can be determined by multiplying the volume of solids by the product of the specific gravity of soil solids and the specific weight of water. Any of the volumes can be found by subtracting two other volume components from the overall volume. For example, the air volume is the difference between the overall volume and the sum of the soil and water volumes. Similarly, the weight of an unknown component (water or solid) can be found by subtracting the overall weight by the known component (water or solid). A phase diagram is a useful tool for visualizing the content of the soil (solids, empty voids, and water-filled voids) and their associated variables by separating them into different regions of the diagram. The above-described calculations can then be done as needed to determine the unknown variables of the diagram.

5. Other Terms to Know

There are a number of other terms related to soil content that the exam-taker should be familiar with which are all defined by particular ratios involving the above-described weights and volumes of a soil. A soil's degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the overall volume of voids within a soil (filled or not). It is sometimes expressed as a percentage, with 100% being a fully saturated soil containing no air voids. A soil's porosity is defined as the ratio of its volume of voids (filled or not) to its total volume (including solids and voids). A soil's water content can be found by dividing the weight of a soil's water by the weight of its solids. Finally, what is known as a soil's void ratio can be found by dividing the total volume of voids (filled or not) by the volume of solids.

6. Dry Unit Weight vs. Saturated Unit Rate

One should be familiar also with the concept of a soil's dry unit weight as well as its saturated unit weight. A soil's dry unit weight can be understood, in terms of phase relationships, as the unit weight of a soil when there is no water present within the void spaces of the soil. The dry weight can be determined by laboratory test after oven-drying the soil. A saturated unit weight, by contrast, is the unit weight of a soil when the void spaces are entirely occupied by water. Completely dry soil as well as completely saturated soil are sometimes referred to as "two-phased" soils since they are lacking in the water component and the air component, respectively. Because of the necessary arrangement of solids within soils, all soils have at least some number of voids within them. Therefore, it is not possible to have a single-phased soil.

Summary

In summary, FE exam-takers should be familiar with the basic concepts of soil mechanics including those related to phase relationships for soils, how various unknown variables may be solved for given particular information about the soil content, the various terminology related to the ratios of these variables, and the concepts of dry unit weight and saturated unit weight.

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.