Performing Engineer's Cost Estimates for Small Construction Projects

Should we stop using him? Why did he tell us it would only cost $13,000 when it actually cost $36,000? We have been using him for almost four years, and all of his engineer's estimates have been close enough for financial planning purposes. It may take well over ten thousand dollars to find another consultant and familiarize him with our procedures. Well, maybe we should find out why his engineering cost estimate was so far off. What method(s) did he use? Why is cost estimating small construction projects so complicated?

To develop and prepare a reliable estimate, you may choose to estimate the project by several methods. A construction cost estimate, which is also called an engineer's cost estimate, is a decision-making tool.

How to Create a Cost Estimate

These include searching your project records, searching the internet to find lump sum costs for similar projects, asking the city or governing body (whether it is a local, county, federal or tribal government) what they think the project will cost, using your own professional judgment, or estimating the project cost by counting the approximate number of hours and cost of materials. Include what you think overhead and profit will be for this project. Some advantages of contacting the governing authority are that you will learn whether a building permit is needed, and you can find out which construction contractor has successfully performed work in your jurisdiction. A good question to ask is whether the contractor is licensed and insured.

When you have an estimate ready to submit to the owner, have someone in your office who has experience performing these types of estimates check your work. Unit cost pricing and price per square foot estimating are of limited use when estimating the cost of small projects.

Defining a Small Project

For the purpose of this article, a small project is something that can be built for under $25,000 and requires formal design by a licensed landscape architect, licensed architect, or professional engineer. The price guidelines are for something built in a location with a reasonable cost of living as opposed to Northwest Los Angeles, the more expensive areas of Manhattan, or the San Francisco Bay Area. Many cost-estimating tools or guides provide an easy-to-use chart on the differences in pricing between varying locales within the country.

For a project in a rural area, it may be acceptable if a boundary is off by a few inches, whereas in Manhattan, an inch would be unacceptable deviance. More precise surveying will cost significantly more. Costs such as these are reflected in the engineer's cost estimate.

Example Scenarios

Small bedroom: As an example, there are so many variables to estimating the cost of adding a small bedroom. Questions that the estimator may seek answers to are: Will a significant amount of earthwork need to be done, and will it be a stand-alone structure? Does the contractor have a safety program, and has she had accidents in the past? What are the current costs of wood, concrete, and steel?

It is important to know if the contractor is environmentally conscious. Would she pour solvent or unused paint on the ground rather than bear the cost of disposing of it properly?

Short culvert: Another example of a small project is a short culvert constructed under a driveway. Even a seemingly simple project requires engineering and at least one bid. Design factors include the size of the culvert, the material that the culvert is constructed of, length, depth of cover, and anything added to the inlet and outlet of the pipe because an unsightly culvert can ruin the appearance of a front yard and profile of the lovely home.

Safety Considerations

If you have been awarded a building permit, then the city or governing authority will inspect the project and work at the appropriate time(s). If you have been working as an engineer, architect, or scientist, you may have seen deadly construction accidents or those that resulted in the loss of body parts such as fingers. When a person works with his hands and they are mangled, he can no longer perform his job function, which makes it hard for him to support his family. The cost of safety should be part of the estimate.

Obtaining Multiple Bids

For small projects, it may not be necessary to obtain multiple bids. It may be fine to do your research on builders and ask one of them for a quote. If it is acceptable and in line with the engineer's cost estimate, you could just select them. This would save you the time of showing the site to potential bidders, copying multiple sets of plans, and answering questions.

Conclusion

An engineer's cost estimate is meant to inform you whether you have enough funds to complete the project, and it can help you to decide whether you want to proceed with the project. For a large project, profit and overhead may be low compared to the cost of the work. For a small project which may take parts of one or two days, the overhead may be higher because the contractor may not be able to perform other work that day, so the owner actually must pay for the anticipated downtime. Also, equipment, supplies, and materials may need to be ordered or reordered to make up for the materials used on this small job; as an example, outdoor piping includes pipe, bedding, and backfill material. The city may require that special inspection and soil compaction testing be performed. This can cost a significant dollar amount which is passed onto the owner.

Contractors are in business to make money, so they must make a profit on every job. I have seen situations where "small-time" local contractors are struggling to survive and live in someone's garage or sleep in their car. Small contractors, not major engineering and construction companies, construct these small projects.

These estimating techniques are for engineering and construction but are not generally useful for scientific research, which is difficult to perform within a specific budget or timeframe.

Even a simple short retaining wall that is generally constructed of concrete block or cast-in-place concrete with reinforcing steel (rebar) can cost a significant amount, so it should be estimated before a contractor is chosen.

Hopefully, the writer of this little blog will have helped you to be up to the challenge of addressing the variations in the scope of the project and developing a cost estimate for small projects.

Interested in earning your professional engineering license? School of PE's comprehensive courses provide what you need to succeed when exam day arrives! Register today.

About the Author: Keith Warwick, PE

Keith Warwick has been a licensed professional civil engineer since 1983. He earned a Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering from the University of Davis and completed coursework in Biblical Counseling from Grace Theological Seminary in Winona Lake, Indiana. He has managed his own firm, PATTY and KEITH, INC. since 2008. He has performed civil engineering design, worked as an engineering instructor for Yuba College in Marysville CA, performed safety and environmental inspections, and performed Commercial Real Estate Due Diligence. He is the author of several books including California's Highway 99: Modesto to Bakersfield.

Opening a Civil Engineering Consulting Firm

"I don't like my job."

"I would like to be my own boss."

"I want to be fairly compensated for my qualifications and efforts."

"I cannot take another day of my current position."

If you can relate to any of these sentiments, opening your own engineering consulting firm might be a great option. Whether you're currently employed, between jobs, or retired, now might be an ideal time to make the transition to being self-employed.

In this Blog,

1. Providing Autonomy

2. Figuring Out How Much to Charge

3. Working from Home vs. Working in an Office

4. Obtaining the Proper Insurance

5. Selecting Projects

6. Establishing Training Protocols

7. Hiring Staff

8. Self-Evaluation

9. Other Suggestions

1. Providing Autonomy

Many companies or governmental agencies prefer employees to retire while they are still relatively young-between the ages of 55 and 60. An advantage of having your own firm is that you can work as late in life as you would like to. You can choose to work full-time or part-time, set your own hours, and can accept or decline any assignments offered to you. If you are an early riser, you may start the day at 4:00 am and finish by noon or even earlier. Alternately, if you are a night owl, you could start the productive part of your day at 10:00 pm when the house is quiet and the television is off, so you can work productively until 4:00 or 5:00 am. Although working seven days a week is not recommended, some choose to work for four or five hours a day, seven days a week. You might even want to hire employees if your eventual goal is to become a larger firm.

2. Figuring Out How Much to Charge

You may agree to design something and inspect it as needed for a set price. If there is a change in scope, you can add to your original fee. Generally, though, consultants are paid by the hour. The best way to know what to charge is by doing some research or by asking other engineers that you trust how much they bill for similar services. Even small professional interactions like that can help you gain credibility and build mutually beneficial relationships.

3. Working from Home vs. Working in an Office

There are pros and cons of working from an office outside of your home, just as there are pros and cons of working within your own home. A disadvantage of working from home is you may have traffic many times during the day if you conduct meetings at your home office. While your neighbors may be friendly and supportive, they may not appreciate the congestion caused by a steady stream of vehicles. Therefore, it may be best to hold meetings someplace other than your home.

4. Obtaining the Proper Insurance

Being self-employed, you would be wise to obtain errors and omissions insurance to protect yourself from getting sued. This type of insurance provides specialized liability protection against damages not covered by conventional liability insurance. It protects you and your company from liability if a client were to file a lawsuit over careless actions, mistakes, or omissions made while conducting business that resulted in a monetary loss. If you see clients in your home, you will need business insurance as well.

5. Selecting Projects

As a consultant, you must have experience performing the tasks you are asked to perform. You must be organized and skilled to be both the engineer and approver. Your accurate assessment of your abilities will prompt you to accept assignments that you are qualified to perform. While big projects are great, small ones are fine, too, and may be more manageable. You may want to leave the big projects to the large engineering and construction companies. Don't be afraid to say no.

6. Establishing Training Protocols

As you get your business off the ground, establishing a regular human performance improvement (HPI) training protocol for yourself and other employees (if applicable) could be beneficial. HPI is a strategy for improving performance and outcomes and can include training as well as considering causes for problems beyond knowledge and skill gaps. Everyone in an organization could benefit from a defined HPI program, which will enhance morale and result in fewer mistakes and accidents.

It is important for consultants and their staff to receive ongoing training to stay current with new technology and new industry practices. Engineers, architects, and landscape architects can easily become consultants assuming they have the appropriate licenses.

7. Hiring Staff

Many people who open consulting firms may be the only person in the firm and may use other personnel services such as freelance drafters. There are disadvantages to using freelancers. You may have a rush job, and your regular draftsman or graphic artist may be busy for the next week, so they cannot help you. If you have an employee, you can quickly direct them to undertake the needed assignment. Also, because they would not be full-time employees, freelancers may not understand the nuances of how your firm operates.

8. Self-Evaluation

One disadvantage of being your boss and possibly not having a team (at least initially) is that you do not have a manager who can review your work or give you performance appraisals and bonuses. It is important to develop a good rapport with your clients in order to improve your credibility and the chances of being referred for future jobs.

9. Other Suggestions

It is good to obtain the services of a bookkeeping, payroll, and tax service, especially if you are inexperienced in these areas. You should also evaluate your own physical condition to determine whether performing physical tasks is suitable for you. There are risks associated with working onsite, so if this type of work is not for you, an office job might be more suitable. You could enlist the services of an inspector if one is needed.

Only accept assignments with which you are fully familiar. Do not deplete your resources. If your firm consists of only one or two engineers plus a small staff, you will not have the time or confidence to design a $10 million shopping center. You can negotiate deadlines, though.

One way to garner work is to get on acceptable municipality, county, or branches of the state government, bidders lists. The requirement to become an accepted bidder may be easier than you think!

Conclusion

Keep in mind that when you establish yourself as the owner of a business, you become the president, manager, and engineer for your projects. It could be helpful to talk to other engineers in similar positions to get their firsthand experience and advice. Make a list of pros and cons to help determine if this career move is right for you.

About the Author: Keith Warwick, PE

Keith Warwick has been a licensed professional civil engineer since 1983. He earned a Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering from the University of Davis and completed coursework in Biblical Counseling from Grace Theological Seminary in Winona Lake, Indiana. He has managed his own firm, PATTY and KEITH, INC. since 2008. He has performed civil engineering design, worked as an engineering instructor for Yuba College in Marysville CA, performed safety and environmental inspections, and performed Commercial Real Estate Due Diligence. He is the author of several books including California's Highway 99: Modesto to Bakersfield.

Water Resources - Water Quality and Drinking Water Distribution and Treatment

Those planning to take the Water Resources and Environmental Depth version of the PE Civil exam need to be familiar with the topics of Water Quality and Drinking Water Treatment. This blog will provide an overview of the relevant subtopics with which the exam-taker should be familiar. My intention is not to cover these topics in depth but to provide an introduction to the items which you should study further for the exam.

Aspects of water quality determination and analysis covered on the exam include: stream degradation; oxygen dynamics; total maximum daily load; biological contaminants; and chemical contaminants, which includes the topic of bioaccumulation.

In this blog,

1. Steam Degradation

2. Oxygen Dynamics

3. Total Maximum Daily Load

4. Biological Contaminants

5. Chemical Contaminants

6. Water Distribution and Treatment

7. Drinking Water Distribution Systems

8. Drinking Water Treatment Processes

9. Water Hardness

10. Unfavorable Taste and Smell

1. Steam Degradation

Stream degradation refers to reduced water quality in a stream as a result of various types of pollution, erosion, or environmental degradation. The quality of the water may be considered to be degraded based on measurements of water temperature, turbidity (the clarity of the water), low dissolved oxygen levels (potentially due to microorganisms), pH balance, and/or the amount of solids content, which includes total solids (TS), total suspended solids (TSS), and total dissolved solids (TDS). Chemicals, such as from agricultural or industrial sources, which may flow into streams through surface runoff, are also contributors to stream degradation.

2. Oxygen Dynamics

Exam-takers should be familiar with concepts related to the determination of saturated content of dissolved oxygen, which is based on Henry's law. In terms of oxygen dynamics, it is also necessary to understand biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) and how they are determined.

3. Total Maximum Daily Load

Total maximum daily load (TMDL) is a concept in water quality which refers to the maximum quantity of pollutant that could potentially flow into a body of water on a daily basis without the water exceeding set maximum pollution levels. It is calculated as the sum of allocated waste loads from point sources, allocated loads from non-point sources, and a safety margin.

4. Biological Contaminants

Contaminants of concern in water that are biological in nature include bacteria such as E. coli (and other coliforms), Legionella, Cryptosporidium, Giardia lamblia, as well as enteric viruses. These specific microorganisms of concern (with the exception of Legionella) are largely associated with human and animal fecal waste contamination of water. The overall concentration of bacteria in a water source can be measured with a heterotrophic plate count (HPC). It should be noted that bacteria are naturally present in water sources, but lower concentrations of bacteria (as measured by an HPC test) can indicate a higher quality of water.

5. Chemical Contaminants

Chemical contaminants of concern for drinking water include inorganic contaminants (IOCs), volatile organic contaminants (VOCs), and synthetic organic contaminants (SOCs). Common IOCs of concern include arsenic, nitrate, nitrite, asbestos, lead, and copper. Bioaccumulation is the accumulation of contaminants within an organism as a result of ingestion of the contaminants.

6. Water Distribution and Treatment

Aspects of drinking water distribution and treatment that are covered on the exam include: drinking water distribution systems, drinking water treatment processes, demands, storage, sedimentation, taste and odor control, rapid mixing (such as with coagulation), flocculation, filtration, disinfection (including the byproducts of disinfection), and water hardness and softening.

7. Drinking Water Distribution Systems

The typical municipal systems for the distribution of public drinking water consist of a water source, treatment plant, storage tanks, and water mains and pipes which convey the water to the points at which the water can be consumed.

It should be noted that the enforced drinking water quality standards at the national level in the United States are set by the EPA in the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs). These set maximum contaminant levels (MCLs). The water quality standards were first set in 1974 with the passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). The act has since been amended in 1986 and 1996 with updates to the list of contaminants which must be limited and the particular concentration levels which define those limits.

8. Drinking Water Treatment Processes

The treatment plants utilize processes of treatment that typically include a number of steps. These include rapid mixing (such as with coagulation), flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. The coagulation step aims to collect small and dissolved pollutants into larger particles resulting from their mixing and binding with chemicals, such as salts, which are introduced into the water. The flocculation step also involves the introduction of chemicals into the water, with the intention of forming "flocs," which are clusters of solids that can more easily be removed from the water than the smaller individual particles. These flocs settle to the bottom of a tank in the sedimentation step of the treatment process. Filtration involves the passage of the water (which has been separated from the flocs) through various filtering media, which may include charcoal, gravel, and sand. This step aims to remove any remaining sizable particulate matter from the water. Ultrafiltration is sometimes also done either as an additional step or as a substitution for the traditional filtration methods. This involves the use of a filter membrane with very small openings. The water is finally treated with disinfectants, such as chlorine, in order to prevent contamination by microorganisms both in the water leaving the treatment plant and in the water mains and pipes which carry the water from the plant to the points of use. Sometimes ultraviolet light is used for disinfection purposes either in addition to the chemical treatment or as a substitution.

9. Water Hardness

Water hardness refers to the total amount of dissolved minerals in water, typically calcium, magnesium, and iron. Though not typically a concern for health, it often leaves mineral buildup on pipes and fixtures. This buildup is also referred to as "scale." Because the particular elements contribute differently to the amount of hardness, they must be put into equivalent terms before adding them together to find the total hardness. The equivalent concentrations can be found by dividing the measured mineral concentrations by the equivalent weights of the elements. Water softness is, by contrast, a relatively low amount of dissolved minerals.

10. Unfavorable Taste and Smell

When it comes to unfavorable taste and smell of supplied drinking water, it can be caused by a number of factors. These often occur where secondary maximum contamination levels (SMCLs) are exceeded. These concentration levels are set in the National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations established by the EPA. These are guidelines are not required to be met by most jurisdictions but are recommendations for water quality that the agency sets. Where the concentrations of the contaminants exceed the recommended levels, though they are not understood to be risks to health, they can cause unpleasant taste, smell, or appearance, which can alarm consumers. These contaminants are also sometimes referred to as nuisance constituents. Contaminants negatively affecting taste or smell include chloride, iron, sulfates, and copper, among others. Those which may negatively affect appearance include aluminum, copper, and manganese, among others. The presence of silver in water can cause skin discoloration (though it is sometimes used for its antibacterial properties in home water treatment systems). Excess fluoride can cause tooth discoloration in children. The methods by which the odors, unpleasant tastes, and other negative effects can be controlled involve limiting the concentrations of these contaminants through processes at the water treatment plant.

Summary

Water quality and treatment is an important topic as it directly affects human health and well-being. For those taking the Water Resources and Environmental Depth version of the PE exam, it is especially important to have a thorough knowledge of the particular water quality contamination issues which water supply systems face and the processes by which the water is treated to resolve these issues and provide quality water to end users.

When you take one of School of PE's PE Civil exam review courses, our subject-matter expert instructors will guide you through each exam topic with respect to NCEES' exam specifications. Register for a course today!

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

How to Become a Transportation Engineer: Steps toward a Dynamic Career in Civil Engineering

Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that deals with aspects of engineering related to the planning, design, maintenance, operations, and analysis of transportation systems. This includes transportation systems such as roads and highways, bus networks and busways, railways, light rail and subways, pedestrian networks, and aviation, among others. It is a dynamic discipline which has evolved and will continue to evolve as transportation networks and technology change over time. Of particular importance for the future is the design and construction of more sustainable transportation networks and infrastructure, and transportation engineers can play an important role in this development. In recent years, the field has seen the development of intelligent transportation systems (ITS) and an evolution in the use of ridesharing platforms, autonomous vehicles, and other technological developments. How does one pursue a successful career in the evolving field of transportation engineering? This blog will discuss the path to licensure and realizing one's career goals in the profession.

This blog covers:

1. Transportation Engineering Begins with Civil Engineering

2. Undergraduate Engineering Programs

3. Obtaining Work Experience

4. Finding the Right Engineering Firm

5. Taking Exams

6. PE Exam

7. Obtaining Licensure

1. Transportation Engineering Begins with Civil Engineering

As transportation engineering is considered a branch of the broader discipline of civil engineering, the typical path toward becoming a transportation engineer begins with enrollment in a civil engineering undergraduate program. Even before college, if a student is interested in the pursuit of engineering as a career path, there are now many high schools across the country that focus on STEM education (STEM being an acronym for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). In any event, a strong background in these areas of study is helpful in beginning studies in civil engineering.

2. Undergraduate Engineering Programs

Most undergraduate programs in engineering begin with courses in the general sciences and mathematics before beginning courses, which are more specialized towards the specific engineering discipline being pursued-in this case, civil engineering. Within many civil engineering undergraduate programs, there is the opportunity to have a concentration in one or more branches of civil engineering, including transportation engineering. Other branches of civil engineering include structural engineering, geotechnical engineering, water resources engineering (including hydraulics and hydrology), environmental engineering (including wastewater treatment), and construction management. The best way to begin your career in transportation engineering is to take courses offered by your program with a focus on topics in this area of study. These may include courses on highway geometric design, traffic analysis and signal design, transportation infrastructure planning, or other topics in transportation studies. Certainly, attending graduate school allows for the opportunity to take such specialized courses and obtain an advanced degree in transportation engineering, as well as the ability to do research which helps shape the future of the profession. Obtaining such an advanced degree gives an obvious advantage in finding work in this field, but it is also an opportunity to gain the specialized knowledge which one will need to specialize in this branch of civil engineering.

3. Obtaining Work Experience

Whether or not an advanced degree is obtained, it is necessary to gain work experience in an engineering office, typically for at least four years, as a requirement towards gaining licensure as a professional engineer. Even while still in school, it is a good idea to seek out internship opportunities to start gaining work experience, obtain familiarity with the profession, and to begin building a professional network. An additional benefit to working as an intern is that firms often rehire former interns for full time positions after their graduation.

4. Finding the Right Engineering Firm

It is important for emerging transportation engineering professionals to find the right engineering firm for them. There are many factors to consider in choosing a place of employment. Ideally, one should seek out a place of employment where mentorship is taken seriously and there are opportunities to work on project types in which one is interested. It is all too easy to get sidetracked from the pursuit of one's professional goals if one does not seek out the support necessary for career development. It is best to seek out a company which is known for their expertise in transportation engineering and which also has senior engineers willing to provide mentorship and guide your professional development. Many firms have regular employee review meetings, and these are great opportunities to discuss professional goals with your employer.

5. Taking Exams

Along with the work experience requirement (which varies by state), engineers must pass both the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam and the Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exam. The FE exam is the first of the two exams to be taken. Among other topics, the Civil FE exam includes questions on transportation engineering, specifically on geometric design, pavement system design, traffic capacity and flow theory, traffic control devices, and transportation planning. It is advised for recent graduates to begin planning their approach to studying for and taking their Civil FE exam within the first couple of years of graduation if possible. This allows for many of the exam topics to still be relatively fresh in one's mind from one's studies so that with study one can reinforce one's knowledge and be well prepared for the exam. Regardless of when one chooses to take the FE exam and the PE exam (and it is never too late), one should take advantage of the many study resources which are now easily available, including online courses, study guide books and e-books, and practice questions and exams.

6. PE Exam

The Civil PE exam is typically taken after completing the necessary years of work experience required by the state in which one is pursuing licensure, though the rules may vary by state. The Civil PE exam is a "breadth and depth" exam meaning that candidates are tested on a breadth portion which tests their broad knowledge of the various areas of civil engineering and a depth portion which is specific to a particular branch of civil engineering. The transportation depth version of the exam covers topics including traffic engineering, horizontal and vertical geometric design, intersection geometry, roadside and cross-section design, signal and traffic control design, geotechnical and pavement, drainage, and alternatives analysis.

7. Obtaining Licensure

Obtaining licensure as a civil engineer is only one step in the process of becoming a successful transportation engineer, albeit an important one. It is important to continue to keep professional development goals in mind and discuss them with your employer regularly. An employer will likely be keen to assist in your professional growth and advancement. It is important for emerging professionals to use their early years in the profession to develop a strong knowledge base. Whether one chooses to pursue a management position or a more technical role in the later years of one's career, this foundation will be invaluable for one's development and future success. It is also beneficial to cultivate one's skills in both written and verbal communication, as well as one's ability to work on teams. Develop a sense of curiosity and seek out opportunities for learning all aspects of the profession, from planning and design to an understanding of construction issues. This will make you valuable as an employee but also establish you as a well-rounded professional. Continuing education is also necessary both to maintain licensure as well as to remain informed of continuing developments in the field. Joining professional societies and attending industry conferences are additional ways to gain industry knowledge and network with other professionals.

Summary

In summary, though there are several steps necessary to becoming a transportation engineer, this should not be a deterrent to those seeking a successful professional career in this area of practice. With careful planning, goal setting, and the thoughtful use of professional development resources, one can put oneself on a trajectory to a long and successful career in this dynamic field.

Don't forget to check out School of PE's FE and PE Civil exam review courses! Our subject-matter expert instructors, comprehensive course content, and innovative learning technology will provide you the building blocks to success!

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

9 Things You Should Know About Hydraulics: A Hydrology Review

Those taking the PE Civil exam should be familiar with the topics of Hydraulics and Hydrology. These topics are covered on the exam regardless of which depth version of the exam is selected. Aside from the Water Resources and Environmental depth exam, which covers these topics in depth, the other exams cover these topics with six to nine questions. Although at first glance, this may not seem to be a large number of questions, it is actually among the topics of the greatest coverage in the breadth portion of the exam. It is therefore especially important to be familiar with these topics to pass the exam.

The blog covers,

1. Hydraulics

2. Open Channel Flow

3. Closed Conduit Flow

4. Hydrology

5. Storm Characteristics within Hydrology

6. Stormwater Collection and Drainage

7. Runoff Analysis

8. Reading Hydrographs

9. Retention Ponds

1. Hydraulics

The term hydraulics refers to the analysis and engineering of open channel and closed conduit flow systems on the basis of the principles of fluid mechanics. At the level of basic fluid mechanics, it's important to know that the behavior of fluids can be understood by the principles of the conservation of mass, the conservation of energy, and the conservation of momentum. In particular, exam-takers should be familiar with using the Bernoulli equation, which is the equation for the conservation of energy of a fluid. Essentially, it relates the pressure, speed, and height of a fluid at two different points within a changing cross-section of piping.

2. Open Channel Flow

With open channel flow, a fluid is not flowing under pressure within a closed conduit, and its behavior is consequently based primarily upon gravity and the slopes of the channels it flows within. The volumetric flow rate in an open channel is simply the average velocity of the fluid multiplied by the fluid's cross-sectional area. The velocity can be determined with one of two formulas: the Chezy-Manning equation or the Hazen-Williams equation. These formulas, the specifics of which will not be discussed here but with which the exam-taker should be familiar, take into consideration the effects of the friction which occurs between the fluid and the surfaces of the channel through which it flows. It should be noted that the hydraulic radius of a fluid in an open channel is the ratio of the fluid's cross-sectional area to its wetted perimeter (which is that portion of the channel section which is contact with the fluid).

3. Closed Conduit Flow

Closed conduit flow, in contrast to open channel flow, is characterized by a fluid's flow under pressure. Friction losses for closed conduits are calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which can be used for the laminar or turbulent flow conditions of any fluid, or the Hazen-Williams equation, which can be used for the turbulent flow conditions of water. The Darcy-Weisbach equation utilizes what is known as the Reynolds number as well as the roughness of the pipe to determine the friction loss. The Hazen-Williams equation also factors in the roughness of the pipe, utilizing constant for different pipe materials. Exam-takers should be familiar with these equations for determining friction losses in closed conduits.

4. Hydrology

Hydrology is the study of the distribution and movement of water over and underneath the earth's surface. For the purposes of study for the PE Civil exam, it is necessary to be familiar with storm characteristics, stormwater collection and drainage, runoff analysis, and the use of retention and detention ponds.

5. Storm Characteristics within Hydrology

Storm characteristics in hydrology include storm frequency as well as rainfall measurement and distribution. The concept of rainfall intensity is used in several equations in hydrology. It is the amount of rain in depth over a period of time and can be measured with a rain gauge. Storm frequency can be understood as the likelihood that a storm of particular intensity may occur in any given year. For example, a 20-year storm would have a probability of occurrence of 1/20 in a given year, and a 100-year storm would have a probability of 1/100. Historical data on rainfall intensity and storm frequency is often available on a regional graph of intensity-duration-frequency curves, which can be used to determine the time of concentration for a flow for a particular storm frequency. Time of concentration is the amount of time which it takes for water from the furthest point in a watershed area to reach the point of analysis, and thus it is the time needed for all areas within the watershed area to start contributing to the storm discharge.

6. Stormwater Collection and Drainage

Systems of stormwater collection and drainage include the components of surface drainage such as over street and gutters, culverts, stormwater inlets, and stormwater pipes. The design of the system is intended to provide for the efficient drainage of stormwater and reduce the risk of flooding. Where impervious surfaces carry surface flow, such as along paved areas, streets and gutters, the slopes along with the sectional cross slopes are designed to channel water into stormwater inlets such as catch basins or curb inlets. These collect the surface water into the underground drainpipes which connect to the main stormwater line. Culverts are conduits which allow for the flow of surface water below a roadway or an embankment.

7. Runoff Analysis

Runoff analysis utilizes hydrographs which are based on data from a storm in a particular area. There are different graphical methods which are used to separate the base flow conditions from the additional flow which is a result of a storm event. From this analysis a unit hydrograph can be plotted which isolates the excess flow from the storm event. It plots the discharge (typically in cubic feet per second) over the course of a storm event such that the graphical representation of the data allows for an understanding of a storm's peak flow and it when it occurs. This can be used to help predict the peak discharge for other future storms with different rainfall amounts.

8. Reading Hydrographs

It should be noted that the hydrograph indicates the particular time lag which occurs for peak flows given the particular topography, terrain, and other factors. A significant factor influencing the shape of the hydrograph curve is the amount of development within the catchment area and specifically the permeability of its surfaces. In permeable surfaces, there is a certain amount of time before the ground has reached maximum absorption and the surface begins to carry runoff. In contrast, paved areas will carry the storm water immediately as surface runoff. Thus, the amount of impermeable area within the catchment area will influence the shape of the curve represented in the hydrograph and the peak flow occurring during a storm event.

9. Retention Ponds

Retention ponds are structures which are used to retain water in the event of a storm so that the area's stormwater drainage system is not overwhelmed in the event of a large storm. They can be thought of as being similar to a water body held back by a dam which has a controlled outflow. The water level of the retention pond fluctuates based on precipitation amounts of storm events. Hydrographic analysis can be utilized to determine the necessary size of a retention pond to accommodate a storm of a particular frequency. Unlike retention ponds, which typically have some level of water in them in normal conditions, detention ponds are typically dry except during storm events. Both serve to reduce storm water discharge rates and the risk of flooding. They can also aid in allowing for the settling of suspended sediments, pollutants, and other particles present in the storm runoff, thus aiding in the improvement of water quality.

Conclusion

It is important for takers of the PE Civil exam to understand the basics of both hydraulics and hydrology as these topics are covered on all of the depth versions of the exam. The above summary serves as a short review of basic concepts which should be studied in more detail as these represent the topics for which there may be several questions on the exam.

School of PE's exam review courses provide the resources and tools you need to prepare for and pass your FE and PE exams. Interested in learning more or signing up for a course? Get in touch with us today!

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

Methods of Estimation in Civil Engineering

The estimation of quantities is an important aspect of civil engineering design projects. Estimates are typically provided to a client in the bid package which is prepared by the design team. It involves not only the estimation of the materials of which the completed project is composed, but also the estimation of the construction labor and equipment which is necessary for the completion of the project work.

In this blog,

1. Types of Estimates

2. Approximate or Rough Estimates

3. Detailed Estimates

4. Material Component of Estimation

5. Determining Unit Costs

6. Allowances

7. Non-Material Components

8. Earthwork

1. Types of Estimates

Estimates performed throughout the design process help the project team and owner gain an understanding of project costs and feasibility, keeping the proposed construction within the owner's budget. For this reason, estimates are typically provided at each design submission. Types of estimates include approximate (also known as rough) estimates and detailed estimates. The development of a project typically lends itself to estimation procedures of greater detail and accuracy at the later stages of design.

2. Approximate or Rough Estimates

Schematic level design, for example, lends itself to rough estimates, which can be based on an engineer's previous experience with costs. One might, for example, have a general idea of the typical cost of a parking lot at grade on a square footage basis and apply that number to the particular area which is proposed on a given project. This may not be a very accurate estimate, but it may be good enough to allow the design team to work with a general sense of an item's cost while detail on the design elements has yet to be determined. Given the uncertainties of a design during the early stages of development, design contingencies are typically added to early estimates to reduce the risk of going over the construction budget in the project design at a later stage. This is often provided as a percentage increase in the overall project cost. As the design progresses, the amount of design contingency may be lowered since there is typically less uncertainty about the design as a project progresses.

3. Detailed Estimates

Detailed estimates break down design items into their various components to gain greater accuracy of estimation. This includes separate cost components of material, labor, and equipment. For this reason, detailed cost estimation is sometimes referred to as the unit cost method. The use of unit prices and the components of an estimate which apply to them are discussed below.

4. Material Component of Estimation

The material component of the estimation is often referred to as a "take-off," as it involves the calculation of material quantities based on plans, sections, elevations, or other design drawings. The calculations for an estimation depend upon the typical unit of measure which is used for the material being estimated. This could be based on volume, area, length, unit count, or overall weight, depending on the material. The cost component of an estimation is determined by multiplying the material quantity by the corresponding unit cost to determine the overall cost for the material. For example, a calculated volume of soil in cubic yards would be multiplied by a unit cost defined as cost per cubic yard. Likewise, a calculated number of doors on a project would be multiplied by unit cost defined as a cost per unit to determine the overall cost for the doors on a project. Units of measure for typical items include: units for items such as doors, windows, drains, catch basins, manholes, and plumbing fixtures; feet or meters of length for items such as pipes, guide rails, and striping; square feet or square meters of area for items such as clearing and grubbing, paint, and flooring; cubic yards or cubic meters of volume for items such as concrete, aggregates, earthwork excavation, soil, and backfill; and tons of weight for items such as structural steel and reinforcement.

5. Determining Unit Costs

Unit costs are typically determined from industry estimating databases. Web-based services can provide the most accurate and up-to-date information. Books with published values are also utilized, though less frequently than in the past. Unit costs change over time and location due to factors such as supply and demand, inflation, and labor availability. The databases utilize recent historical data to determine a value for use in estimates. It should be noted that an estimator should review the values found in the databases and evaluate their appropriateness for the project under consideration, as the specifics of the project may warrant an adjustment to the values to gain greater accuracy in the estimate.

6. Allowances

Some items may be indicated in an estimate with an allowance rather than a unit cost basis. The allowance, however, is typically determined based on some type of assumption as to the amount of material or work required, though a precise amount may be unknown whether because of uncertainties in the design or for a lack of sufficient detail in the current stage of design.

7. Non-Material Components

Non-material components of work such as labor typically have a unit of measure in overall labor hours. Multiplication of the labor rate by the anticipate labor hours yields the labor cost. It should be noted that off hours or overtime work may need to be considered as this will increase the unit cost for the labor.

8. Earthwork

Civil engineers should be familiar with the common methods of earthwork calculations related to grading work. Earthwork consists of both cutting and filling operations. The methods of estimation for these include the average method, the block (or grid) method, and the section method, among others. Each may be most appropriate for a given type of project or stage of design.

• Average Method: In the average method, one would first determine the average level of existing conditions, then the average level of the final proposed conditions, and finally multiply this difference by the area of the work. This would roughly determine the overall amount of fill or excavated soil that would be necessary to transport to or from the site. It would be most appropriate to use this method as either a preliminary estimation method or on a smaller scale project.
• Block or Grid Method: In the block (or grid) method, one would divide an area up into smaller areas and determine the amount of difference between the existing and finish grade in each of those areas. One would then multiply the area of each of these blocks by the difference determined from each of these blocks and the sum of these numbers to determine the total amount of cutting or filling. The difference between the two totals would indicate the total soil either required to be brought in or removed. This method would result in more accuracy than the average method.
• Section Method: The section method is most appropriate for infrastructural projects, such as new highways where there is a linear area under consideration. Sections are taken at regular intervals along a path through the project area, such as at the centerline of a roadway. The existing terrain and the proposed terrain shown within these sections allow for the area difference between the two to be calculated using calculation techniques such as the trapezoidal method, wherein complex shaped sectional areas are determined by first breaking them down into simpler areas. These areas would then be multiplied by the distance between the sections taken along the path to determine the volumes of cutting or filling. Computer software is often used to generate these sections once survey data of the terrain is imported into the software.
• Soil Swell: It should also be noted that a given volume of soil, once excavated, typically expands to a larger volume, and this should be taken into consideration when determining the number of vehicle trips required for transporting the soil. This is sometimes referred to as "swell." When soil is brought into a site and then compacted, it occupies a smaller volume of space. This is sometimes referred to as "shrinkage."

Conclusion

In summary, understanding how to do quantity take-offs and determining estimated costs is a key task in civil engineering. In order to develop the most accurate cost estimates, civil engineers should be familiar with the various types of estimates and how they are made. They should also be familiar with the particular methods for estimating common work items in civil engineering such as for earthwork. Accurate quantity and cost estimates are essential for successful projects that are delivered within budget.

Are you figuring out which direction you want to take in life? If you are interested in engineering, School of PE has a comprehensive exam review course to help start you down the path to success! Register today!

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

How to Choose the Best PE Civil Depth Exam for You

The Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) Civil exam consists of both "breadth" and "depth" components. The breadth portion of the exam covers topics from all five areas of practice within civil engineering. For the depth portion of the exam, candidates may choose a specific area of practice to be tested upon. The five areas of practice with their own specialized depth portions of the exam are: construction, geotechnical, structural, transportation, and water resources and environmental. Thus, the candidate is faced with a decision to make as to which depth exam to take. While for some candidates the choice may be obvious, for others, the choice may be less clear for various reasons. This blog post offers some guidance and suggestions for those uncertain as to which depth exam to take.

In this blog,

1. Your Chosen Exam Does NOT Determine Your Career

2. Different Content, Same Style

3. Review NCEES Exam Specifications

4. Go With What You Know

5. Prepare for Future Practice

6. Understanding Your Strengths and Weaknesses

7. Check NCEES Pass Rates

8. Becoming Familiar with References

9. Still Can't Decide?

1. Your Chosen Exam Does NOT Determine Your Career

From a licensing standpoint, it is actually not relevant which version of the PE Civil exam is taken. For example, you could pass the construction depth version of the exam and go on to practice in transportation engineering. When you pass the exam and fulfill all the necessary requirements for licensure from the state which grants the license, you obtain a PE license in which the subcategories of civil engineering practice are not distinguished. From a strategic standpoint, in terms of passing the exam and for other reasons, however, it is worth spending some time to consider which depth exam may be right for you.

2. Different Content, Same Style

The PE Civil exams are offered year-round at NCEES-approved Pearson VUE test centers. There is no difference in the availability of the exams at the testing center locations, so this should not be an influence on the decision. In terms of exam format, each of the exams contains the same number of questions and has the same amount of time allowed for answering them.

3. Review NCEES Exam Specifications

All candidates should take the time to familiarize themselves with the specific topics that are covered on the different versions of the exam. This information is available on the NCEES website, where exam specifications are available for each of the different depth modules. These even include a range of possible numbers of questions covering each of the specific topics covered on the exams. Also included for each depth module is a list of the references the candidate should be familiar with that will be supplied in electronic format during the exam.

4. Go With What You Know

The most obvious and straightforward approach to the decision is to take the exam, which covers the most topics you are already most familiar with, either from work experience or education. Presumably, a candidate would have the greatest head start in their exam studies as he or she would already possess a strong knowledge and experience base to build upon in preparing for the exam. If you have focused on a particular area of practice both during college and for four or more years in a work setting, then your best bet is to stick to the depth exam that most closely aligns with this background. Educational focus and workplace experience may not be the only factors in making the decision, however.

5. Prepare for Future Practice

For some, there is a misalignment between the area of practice in which one has the most experience and the area of practice in which one is currently working or intends to work in the future. If you are going to devote a significant amount of time to study and review, then you might as well use that time to improve or reinforce your knowledge in the area of practice in which you plan to work in the future. Why not use PE exam preparation as an opportunity to develop and reinforce knowledge that you will utilize daily once you have achieved your license? Put your study time to work in contributing to your professional development with an eye beyond the achievement of licensure.

6. Understanding Your Strengths and Weaknesses

For others, there may not be a clear choice in terms of previous experience. Maybe you have worked in the practice areas of transportation as well as construction. An understanding of one's strengths and weaknesses may aid in the decision. Again, a review of the specific topics covered on each version of the exam would be helpful in this regard. What if you are not certain about which area of practice your strength lies? Taking an initial practice exam in each of the two versions under consideration may aid in the decision by showing you which area of practice you may have greater strength.

7. Check NCEES Pass Rates

An additional factor to consider is the pass rate for each of the different depth exams. These are published on the NCEES website. A review of the pass rates may hint at the relative difficulties of the exams for those taking them or possibly the quality level of the exam questions (i.e., non-ambiguous questions). As of this writing, the highest pass rate, both for first-time takers and repeat takers, was for the Water Resources and Environmental depth exam. The lowest pass rate for first-time takers was for the Construction depth exam. Given the fact that the exams are presumably evaluated from time to time for fairness and quality, one should probably not make too many assumptions about the exams from this data, though it may be useful to have a general sense of the pass rates.

8. Becoming Familiar with References

It should be noted that the number and size of the references with which one should be familiar varies considerably for the different depth exams. The Water Resources and Environmental exam currently has only two design standards to reference; the Construction exam currently has eight; the Transportation exam currently has nine; the structural exam currently has ten; and the Geotechnical exam currently has a total of sixteen. While all of the necessary references are available in electronic format during the exam (no matter which exam you take), there is an added level of study effort involved in becoming familiar with the standards and their use. Depending on your particular strengths and weaknesses in studying and exam-taking, this could potentially impact your decision on which exam to take.

9. Still Can't Decide?

Still can't decide? Another idea is to simply begin one's exam preparations with study for the breadth part of the exam, and then, as one studies the different areas of practice, the answer as to which depth version to take may become apparent. Remember that you don't need to settle on a particular depth exam at the very start of your exam studies. Begin with study for the breadth portion of the exam, then focus in further on a specific area of practice for the depth portion. You may find it easier or more enjoyable to study one area of practice than another. Focusing on an area of practice that you enjoy studying the most is an excellent choice because the greatest danger to failing an exam is often the procrastination which occurs when you dread and consequently avoid studying certain topics.

Conclusion

Once you've made an informed decision as to which Civil depth exam to take, it is best to commit to it until exam day. It would likely be an inefficient use of study time to devote a significant amount of time to studying topics that will not be on the depth part of the exam. It is worth remembering that no matter which depth exam is chosen, you have the ability to pass the exam if you devote the necessary time and effort to your studies.

No matter which PE Civil exam you choose, make sure you partner with School of PE for your exam prep needs! Our subject-matter expert instructors and innovative learning technology provide what you need to succeed on exam day! Register now.

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

What You Should Know about the Types of Equipment Used in Civil Construction

Candidates taking the Civil PE exam should be familiar with the types of equipment commonly used in civil engineering construction projects. This familiarity will aid the designer in understanding the capabilities and limitations of such equipment in particular site contexts. In order to provide accurate construction estimates, it is also essential to understand what equipment will be necessary for the project work.

The blog covers:

1. Figuring Out Which Tasks Need to be Completed

2. Earthwork Operations

3. More Excavating Tools

4. Dump Trucks

5. Clearing Property

6. Compaction Equipment

7. Preparing Trenches

8. Asphalt and Concrete Equipment

9. Installing Concrete

1. Figuring Out Which Tasks Need to be Completed

In exploring the types of equipment used in civil engineering, the discussion can be framed around the major types of tasks that are involved in typical projects. These include earthwork operations, material transport, clearing and grubbing, compaction, asphalt and concrete work, and the installation of utilities and other infrastructural elements. Additionally, there are, of course, the tools and equipment used prior to construction, such as those used for surveying and site measurements or analysis, but we will limit our discussion to the equipment used for construction itself. We will also not discuss equipment used for the general demolition of existing structures or infrastructure, although this too is an area that is often part of civil engineering projects.

2. Earthwork Operations

In terms of earthwork operations, there is equipment used for the operations of cutting (or excavating), filling, moving, and transporting. Some equipment can be used for multiple of these purposes, while others are more limited in capability but more efficient in a particular task. It should be noted that the material being worked in earthwork operations includes not only soil, but also potentially rocks, sand, and other material. Excavators and backhoes are used primarily for the purposes of excavating material, though they can also be utilized for some demo operations, the general loading and unloading of a material, or moving it a short distance. Excavators are the larger of the two types of equipment, and they can rotate 360 degrees, while backhoes typically do not. While excavators and backhoes work by digging or scooping a material, a bulldozer (or more simply, a dozer) is used to push through the uppermost layer of soil and distribute it along as it does so. It lends itself to work where there is a need for alterations on a more continuous or linear basis, while the backhoe might be selected for digging a hole or moving earth from a taller mound. A scraper is another type of equipment which may be used in earth-moving operations. It consists of a cutting element that scrapes the soil, which is then carried into a hopper. The load can then be ejected so that it can be released in areas where fill is required. The scraper is typically pulled or pushed by a tractor or dozer. A grader is a type of equipment that is used to level off the uneven surface of a terrain by means of a blade positioned on the underside of the vehicle.

3. More Excavating Tools

Other types of equipment for excavating operations include power shovels, though these are often used in larger contexts such as mining excavations. Unlike backhoes, they utilize a rope or cable system rather than a hydraulic arm, and the bucket may be forward facing. Larger still is the dragline excavator which utilizes a crane and is also more often used for mining operations or in port construction. A clamshell excavator is a type of equipment that utilizes a two-piece bucket with a middle hinge. This may be attached to a hydraulic arm or a crane with cable system. They are often used for dredging operations.

4. Dump Trucks

Dump trucks are typically used to move or haul materials over a distance. There are various types of dump trucks with the standard (or rear) dump truck being the most common. Other types include side dump trucks and end dump trucks which are sometimes used where more capacity is required. Bottom-type dump trucks have a clamshell bottom so that the material can be released below the carrier.

5. Clearing Property

For clearing and grubbing, the removal of vegetation both above and below ground is necessary for construction - equipment includes hand tools as well as the excavating equipment described above. Other equipment includes mulchers, brush mowers, and grubbers. Mulchers do just as the name implies and turn brush into mulch. Brush mowers are used to clear vegetation above ground, while brush grubbers are used to remove small stumps and roots from below the ground.

6. Compaction Equipment

Compaction equipment for earthwork includes various types of rollers as well as tamping/ramming type compactors. Smooth drum rollers are a common type. These may have a single or double drum. There are also static type and vibration type rollers. The vibration of a drum assists with the compaction and is commonly used with certain types of material such as non-uniformly graded soils. Sheep foot (or pad) type rollers have drums with projecting elements and are commonly used where compaction of clay is necessary. Pneumatic type compactors utilize a vehicle's tires rather than a drum. This is commonly used as final compaction method on asphalt pavements. With tamping (or ramming) type compactors, impact forces are applied to a surface to compact a material. Vibratory plate type compactors are also used and utilize vibration rather than a ramming action for compaction. These non-roller types of compactors are pushed by an individual rather than a vehicle and are often used for smaller areas than might be covered with rollers but are appropriate for certain situations such as preparing an area for a footing or small slab.

7. Preparing Trenches

For the preparation of trenches, the installation of utility lines, or agricultural purposes, trenching equipment is typically used. This type of equipment includes trenchers which can be of the wheel or ladder type. The wheel type utilizes a large wheel at the front of the vehicle with various types of cutting edges and scooping buckets. The ladder type is similar but uses a more elongated apparatus with buckets moving along a chain roller.

8. Asphalt and Concrete Equipment

Lastly in our discussion, we will touch upon the types of equipment used in work related to asphalt and concrete. A miller is a type of equipment that is used to mill the exposed surface of an existing layer of asphalt. This allows for a rough grooved and slip-resistant surface upon which a new layer of asphalt can then be added. Sweeping vehicles, or sweepers, are often used after the milling equipment is used in order to clear the surface of rocks and other debris. The actual paving operations for new asphalt material are accomplished with asphalt pavers. The hot mix asphalt deposited from the equipment is leveled out by means of a screed component. This screed also allows the thickness and profile of the asphalt layer to be controlled. Finally, compacting equipment, such as the pneumatic type compactor mentioned above, is typically utilized to ensure the proper compaction of the asphalt.

9. Installing Concrete

Common equipment for concrete work includes mixers, vibrators, pavers, conveyors, boom placers, and pumps. Mixers blend the components of concrete mix together, and there are two broad categories of mixer types, batch and continuous. Batch mixers include varieties of the drum type and the pan type. With the drum type, the components are mixed through the rotation of a drum. In contrast, the pan type utilizes a rotating set of blades within a container to accomplish the mixing. Mixing trucks allow for the mixing to occur during transport from a plant. Concrete vibrators are used to reduce the presence of air bubbles within a volume of placed concrete. Concrete pavers are used commonly in the construction of concrete roadways, with the most typical type for this application being the slipform type. With the slipform type paver, once the machine places the concrete, it is then spread evenly with augurs before being smoothed off by means of a strike off plate. It should be noted that there are also more specialized concrete pavers for the creation of concrete curbs and gutters. A concrete conveyor is a means of moving concrete material from a mixer to another location where it can then be poured into place. Concrete can also be moved and placed by means of a boom placer. These utilize concrete pumps to convey the liquid concrete to the end of the placing boom.

Conclusion

The equipment described above is by no means an exhaustive list of equipment used in the construction of civil engineering projects. These are just some of the more commonly used types of equipment with which the civil engineer should be familiar. Understanding how such equipment is utilized by contractors can provide for a better understanding of the construction process and consequently result in more successful civil engineering projects.

Are you looking to "construct" a career in civil engineering? Look no further than School of PE's exam review courses to help you pass your PE Civil exam! Register now to access early registration discounts on Live Online classes.

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

What are the Handoffs in Creating a Building?

During the design process, each team member is responsible for contributing not only to final design documentation for their individual discipline, but each must also provide key deliverables along the way to other team members so that they can also complete their work. Understanding the scope and timing of these "handoffs" is essential in providing a quality product on time and on budget.

At the start of a typical design-bid-build process for a new building, the client is responsible first in providing a handoff, specifically information pertaining to the design context, goals, and constraints for the project. Such information typically includes site location, building program, budget, desired schedule, survey, and geotechnical information, all of which are furnished to the architect so that the design team may begin their work. It is possible that the architect may assist with programming, site selection, or other aspects of pre-design, but this is not the usual case and would require an adjustment to the typical forms of agreement which define the scope of the architect's work.

At the start of the design process, it is then the architect's responsibility to communicate and furnish the information necessary for all other team members, including engineers, interior designers, and any other member of the design team, whether internal to the architect's firm or acting as subconsultant, to begin their work. The information provided includes the information discussed above, but the architect is also responsible for establishing key internal deadlines as well and setting up recurring project meetings so that the team is well coordinated in their work and can be sure to meet design deadlines for the client.

The architect must then work towards providing schematic design information to these team members. Once basic building massing and layouts are established, the architect is typically responsible for the computer modeling / drafting of the schematic design schemes, which must then be handed off to the engineers and other team members so that they may begin to work on their drawings and do their initial system selections and design calculations. In today's design industry, this type of collaboration is often accomplished through the use of BIM models on the cloud, although traditional 2D CAD files are also often sent as base files for others' work. Sometimes it is a mixture of both, with the architect (and specific engineers) utilizing a BIM model and then exporting particular sheets from the model as 2D CAD files for any consultants who are not utilizing BIM for their work.

As design progresses, the team members in turn are responsible for providing information and background drawings/models to the architect who has the ultimate responsibility for ensuring that each party's work is coordinated within the whole and will also perform a quality review of the work. At each key design stage, a deliverable is provided to the client, which must then be reviewed with the client before the team is given the go-ahead to proceed with the next stage of design work. These deliverables are typically provided at the end of the schematic design, design development, and construction document stage. The final documents provided to the client are often referred to as the Bid Documents. Often a client will also require deliverables at additional points between these stages. For example, there may be a 95% Construction Documents Set prior to the submission of the final Bid Documents. The deliverable stages are typically outlined in the contract between the architect and client.

The documents submitted to the client typically include drawings, specifications, and estimates. Architectural drawings included in a submission typically include floor plans, reflected ceiling plans, building sections, elevations, wall sections, details (for both interior and exterior conditions), door and window schedules, and finish schedules. Each engineering discipline on the project also includes drawings within the drawing set. These usually include plans, details, schedules, and diagrams specific to their discipline. Specifications are provided for each item used on the project, in addition to front end specs which define other requirements for the work on the project. In a schematic design submission, it is often only required to provide an outline of the specification sections which will be included in the project, with the specification sections themselves only being developed and submitted in the later design submissions. The expectations for the degree to which specifications should be developed at each submission, as well as drawings that should be added, are often client-specific. Larger clients who undertake many construction projects likely have well-defined levels of development defined for each submission of the design development process. In any case, it is important that expectations for the deliverables are understood at the start of the project so that design work can progress smoothly.

In addition to the drawings, specifications, and estimates, additional material may also be provided depending on the client's needs. For example, renderings or interior finish boards might be required so that the client can review and provide feedback on design decisions. Sometimes a design narrative is also included in submissions to the client, which is a written description of the work and the design intentions for the project and can be useful in the early stages of a project. The need for the design team to provide these additional items would be indicated in the contract between the architect and client. Engineers' calculations are also often included in a submission, depending on the type of work.

After the Bid Documents, which are typically signed and stamped by the lead licensed professionals working on the project, are submitted and accepted by the client, the project can be put out for contractors to bid on. The architect's work is not over at this point, as the architect typically assists the owner with this process and provides answers to potential contractor's questions about the design documents. Sometimes addenda, or updated drawings, clarifying some design intent are required to be issued as well.

Once a contractor has been engaged and permits have been obtained, the construction process can begin, with the responsibility for the work now largely shifting to the contractor. It is also the contractor who must now provide documents to the architect and owner for their review, namely construction schedules, submittals, requests for payment, and change orders, among other items. The architect typically also conducts site visits to review the quality and progress of the work, often issuing field reports to the client to communicate the progress on the project and any issues observed at the site. The construction process concludes with the completion of punch list items and a final payment to the contractor, at which point the building is finally "handed off" to the owner. 

As can be observed from the above description, there are numerous handoffs between architects, engineers, clients, and contractors throughout the design process. When design or construction issues arise, the process can be even less linear as the team works out potential design solutions. The work of each party often depends on the quality and timeliness of the handoffs provided by the others. Understanding these handoffs is key to a successful workflow and, ultimately, to the success of a building project. Each team member must have a firm grasp of what is needed from other team members as well as what must be provided to the other team members. This is key not only to keeping a project on schedule and within budget but also for the overall quality of the end product.

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.