Determinacy and Stability on the FE Civil Exam

For those taking the FE Civil exam, one of the structural topics one should be familiar with is determinacy and stability. This blog post will provide a brief overview of these concepts, review how basic structures can be evaluated for determinacy, and briefly discuss some of the basic methods for solving the reactions of indeterminate structures.

In this blog,

1. Statically Determinate and Statically Indeterminate Structural Systems

2. Trusses

3. Stability

4. General Approaches to Problem-Solving

5. General Force Method

1. Statically Determinate and Statically Indeterminate Structural Systems

In structural analysis, there are considered to be two different types of stable structural systems: statically determinate and statically indeterminate. A stable structure is one whose forces are in equilibrium (as opposed, for example, to one which is in motion). Those stable structures which are determinate can be solved by statics using the three familiar equations of equilibrium. Namely, these are: The sum of forces in the vertical (or y-axis) direction is equal to zero; the sum of forces in the horizontal (or x-axis) direction is equal to zero; and the sum of moments is equal to zero. Again, such structural problems which can be solved using only these equations are known as statically determinate structures. Statically indeterminate structures, by contrast, are those which cannot be solved by these equations alone. These are also sometimes referred to as redundant structures.

The simple method by which one can determine whether a structure is statically determinate or indeterminate (and if indeterminate, by what degree) is the following: Determine the number of support reactions to solve for, and then compare them to the number of static equilibrium equations, which is three. If the number of support reactions is less than or equal to three, then it is a statically determinate structure. If it contains more than three support reactions to solve for, then it is statically indeterminate. The degree to which a structure is indeterminate is equal to the support reactions minus three.

For example, if a simple beam is supported on one end by a pin support and on the other end by a roller support, the structure can be evaluated for determinacy as follows. The pin support, since it prevents translation in the horizontal and vertical directions (but allows for rotation) has two unknown reaction forces, that of the x-direction and the y-direction. The roller support, since it prevents translation in the vertical direction (but allows for translation in the horizontal direction and for rotation), has one unknown reaction force, that of the y-direction. With a total of three unknown support reactions, which is equal to the number of static equilibrium equations, the structure is statically determinate, and (whatever the loading conditions on the beam) the reactions can consequently be solved for utilizing those three equations alone.

If, however, one were to take the example of a beam which is supported with two pins and a roller, it would be evaluated as follows. Each of the two pin supports would have two unknowns (again, the vertical and horizontal reaction force components), and the roller would have one (again, the vertical reaction force). The total number of the support reaction forces, therefore, is five. As this is in excess of the number of static equilibrium equations by two, the system is statically indeterminate by a degree of two.

Taking one further example - a cantilevered beam with a fixed support connection at one end and a roller at the center, it can be evaluated for determinacy as follows. The fixed support, as it prevents translation in the vertical and horizontal directions and, additionally, as it prevents rotation at the support, is found to have three unknown reaction forces (x-direction, y-direction, and moment about the connection point). Adding these three unknowns to the one unknown of the roller support yields a total of four, and thus the structure is found to be indeterminate to the degree of one.

It should be noted that the above examples relate to what is known as external determinacy (or indeterminacy, as the case may be), but it is also possible to have structures which are internally indeterminate (even if they are externally determinate). One example of an internally indeterminate structure is that of a truss with an excess of members such that the forces within them cannot be calculated using the static equilibrium equations alone.

2. Trusses

In evaluating a truss (within a two-dimensional plan) for internal determinacy, the following method can be used. Count the number of truss members and add this number to the number of support reactions. If this number is greater than the number of joints in the truss multiplied by two, then the structure is indeterminate. If this is the case, the degree to which it is indeterminate would be the difference then between the two numbers.

3. Stability

In terms of stability, while statically determinate structures are stable, a failure at any restraint of any of the supports results in instability of the system. By contrast, indeterminate structures, by virtue of the fact that there are more restraints than necessary for stability, are considered to be redundant systems. That is to say, the overall structure has greater potential to remain stable if a local failure were to occur within the system.

4. General Approaches to Problem-Solving

While exam-takers of the FE exam are unlikely to need to solve for reactions in a full analysis problem of an indeterminate structure, it is worth having knowledge of the general approaches to solving for these types of problems. These include the general force (or unit load) method, Castigliano's method, the moment distribution method, and the slope deflection method. For indeterminate building frames, there are still other methods, including the portal method and the cantilever method. As the general force method is one of the more common basic approaches, a brief overview of the method is provided below.

5. General Force Method

In the general force method, a loaded indeterminate structure is examined such that all support reaction components are identified. Then the structure is reimagined as one in which all redundant support components are removed so that a determinate stable structure remains (that is to say, one with only three support reaction components supporting the structure). This imagined version of the structure is sometimes referred to as the "primary structure" for the method. The primary structure is analyzed under the given loading conditions to determine the displacements which occur at the locations of the redundant support components of the original structure. The next step is to remove the original loading conditions and analyze a "secondary structure" which corresponds to the primary structure along with a unit force load applied at the location of the redundant support of the original structure. The displacement which occurs for this secondary structure is then solved for under this unit force load. This is done individually for each of the structure's redundant support restraints. Finally, through setting up equations in which the sums of the displacements are set to zero, the unknown reaction components of the structure's redundant supports can be solved for.

Conclusion

In summary, exam-takers of the FE Civil exam should be familiar with the concepts of determinacy and stability and be able to determine whether a particular two-dimensional structure is statically determinate or indeterminate and, if indeterminate, by what degree. The above examples describe the approach. While support reactions of determinate structures can be solved for using only the static equations of equilibrium, solving for indeterminate structures is a more involved process. There are a number of methods which have been developed for solving problems involving indeterminate structures. While exam-takers will not be calculating reactions for indeterminate structures on the exam, a general understanding of the most common methods, such as the general force method, aids in an understanding of the general approach to solving for indeterminate structures.

Do you want to pursue a career in civil engineering? Consider partnering with School of PE, one of the leading exam prep providers, to help you succeed with confidence!

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

7 PE Exam Success Habits

When I look back on my Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exam experience, I sometimes reflect on achieving this milestone. There were seven (7) PE exam success habits that I utilized in my exam preparation. I am writing these habits for the PE exam because the process was more challenging than the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam. The FE exam application is simpler than the PE exam, so the FE process was overall easier. Now let's get to it!

The blog covers:

1. Success Habit #1: Find the Right Motivation

2. Success Habit #2: Get Off to a Hot Start with Every Morning

3. Success Habit #3: Select a Pre-Recorded Online Review Course

4. Success Habit #4: Enjoy Other Hobbies/Interests

5. Success Habit #5: Close Your Mind to All Criticism and Self-Doubt

6. Success Habit #6: Exercise then Relax Before Exam Day

7. Success Habit #7: Confront the Exam Head-On

1. Success Habit #1: Find the Right Motivation

I originally started looking into the PE exam as just the next step. Graduate school was my focus for a while, since my schedule was the workplace on weekdays, class on weeknights, and homework on weekends. That may sound mundane, but graduate school was good for both my personal and professional growth. And I was also continuing to gain practical engineering experience at my job. So, it was productive all-around.

This growth and enrichment became my motivation. There was much knowledge circulating around me, and I realized that if I could learn more, I could become better, both personally and professionally. My recommendation is to find your own motivation, something other than just more money or some other kind of bonus. Yes, I received a small bonus for passing the PE exam, but there was so much more that I had gained than just the dollar amount.

2. Success Habit #2: Get Off to a Hot Start with Every Morning

Preparation is the most critical element needed to pass the PE exam. It is interesting how you spend hours on end studying for just the one exam day, but all the preparation is key when you truly need it the most. I am more of a morning person, so this is how the idea first came to me. I realized that oversleeping did not really benefit me, since I was wasting extra time by either just lying in bed or trying to fall back asleep.

When I first started waking up earlier and accomplishing tasks, I was feeling better about the day ahead. Everyone else is just waking up, but you have already set the tone for a good day. I would recommend completing errands first thing in the morning, then you have the rest of the day ahead for PE exam preparation. And since you have already completed your other checklist items, you are already a couple steps ahead of everyone else. As I write this blog post, I can tell you that I got off to a hot start this morning!

3. Success Habit #3: Select a Pre-Recorded Online Review Course

I would recommend a review course to help with your studying preparation. I am suggesting a pre-recorded online review course since this allows yourself the time to study and learn at your own pace. I took the PE Mechanical (Thermal and Fluids Systems) exam, and the pre-recorded course option offered by School of PE was instrumental towards my success. I was able to start and end the review sessions depending on my schedule and did not have to abide by the predetermined webinar schedule for taking breaks.

You should not rush yourself in trying to study a certain amount of content in a limited amount of time; rather, you should use the time that you need. You will probably find that some subjects require more studying than others. The PE exam format lists a range of a certain number of questions, so you must be sufficiently prepared in all the core subjects. I will say that I am not too big on studying in groups or live webinars. When studying in groups, I find that you can become distracted too easily and you may try to adopt another person's study habits which may not suit your own.

4. Success Habit #4: Enjoy Other Hobbies/Interests

Preparation for the PE exam requires time. I will be honest here; you will probably have less time for a social life and other activities (but I can also assure you that pursuing a PE license is certainly worthwhile). But you should still try to allocate some time for other hobbies and interests. Diversions are good since they can help you stay fresh, so you are not just staring at textbooks and notes all day. Also, if you dedicate ALL your spare time to passing the PE exam, you are placing excessive pressure on yourself. I had a friend that did not pass the PE exam on the first try and felt even worse because he was too lopsided on study time, neglecting other activities altogether. I studied much during summer 2018, but was still attending yoga classes, volunteering with my church, and improving my cooking skills (eating healthy helps with a hot start, and of course breakfast is the most important meal of the day!).

5. Success Habit #5: Close Your Mind to All Criticism and Self-Doubt

I do feel that one of the success habits should be about facing past moments that were not your best. We have all experienced failure at some point; maybe you did not receive approval to sit for the PE exam on your first application attempt, or maybe you did not pass the first time. But it is important to eliminate that self-doubt and close your mind to all criticisms. Usually, I would recommend keeping your eyes open to new activities and expanding your scope. But in the case of passing the PE exam, I would suggest having more of a "tunnel vision" where you have laser focus on the passing goal.

Do not worry about past workplace mistakes either. I have certainly made mistakes myself; it is okay to make mistakes, as you should always keep moving yourself forward. Even if you do not feel ready for the PE exam, you should still pursue it anyways. I only had the minimum four years work experience and briefly contemplated waiting another year. But I decided to go for it (and got it).

6. Success Habit #6: Exercise then Relax Before Exam Day

I took the PE exam on Friday but made sure to attend my martial arts class the night before. As I mentioned earlier, you should still engage in other interests to keep yourself fresh and in a healthy, positive mindset. Passing the PE exam is not a sprint; the preparation is a journey to success. It certainly does not happen overnight. But it is important to clear your head the night before, so you feel that final preparation overnight.

Exercising at my martial arts class was the final puzzle piece to get into that healthy mindset so I would be truly ready. The exercise helps you to destress so you have that Exam mentality. Knowing myself, I may have psyched myself out trying to review every topic last minute the night before. I would have probably stayed up later and missed out on the rest needed for a proper hot start.

7. Success Habit #7: Confront the Exam Head-On

The seventh and final success habit comes on exam day. You are going to feel different emotions; I was feeling mostly a combination of excitement and anxiety. There was some fear, but I was already in a positive mindset from exercising the night before (Habit #6). And I also got off to a hot start that morning with a healthy breakfast (Habit #2). You can see that I was putting it all together. When you arrive to your exam location, you will find that everyone else is feeling that same atmosphere (pressure will probably be 1 atm!). This is a good reason why you should not panic or lose composure.

When you first receive the PE exam, look through the test. I seldom do this, but I checked ahead this time. Some questions will require longer methodologies than other questions, so you should identify early on which questions are shorter than others. Remember, the PE exam is not a sprint. You have the time to take a few moments to assess the entire exam. It is okay to revisit questions later and certainly okay to answer some questions wrong (just not too many). During the exam break (after the morning session), I overheard other examination candidates voicing similar concerns. Never quit; keep pushing ahead and tackle that exam!

Conclusion

I do not believe you should assign a certain number of hours for studying and preparation. Everyone has different study habits. I am providing my own insights and observations, but you must ultimately decide on your best strategy. There is no true universal equation for success on the PE exam (I have already checked the different NCEES Reference Handbooks), so you may need to identify your own success habits. But you can certainly use these seven (7) success habits as a guide. And of course, be sure to check back with School of PE for more blog posts.

Interested in earning your professional engineering license? School of PE's comprehensive courses provide what you need to succeed when exam day arrives! Register today.

About the Author: Gregory Nicosia

Gregory Nicosia, PE is an engineer who has been practicing in the industry for eight years. His background includes natural gas, utilities, mechanical, and civil engineering. He earned his chemical engineering undergraduate degree at Drexel University (2014) and master's in business administration (MBA) from Penn State Harrisburg (2018). He received his EIT designation in 2014 and PE license in 2018. Mr. Nicosia firmly believes in continuing to grow his skillset to become a more well-rounded engineer and adapt to an ever-changing world.

Phase Relationships of Soil

Those taking the FE Civil exam should be familiar with the basic concepts in soil mechanics related to the phase relationships of soil. Phase relationships are also covered on the PE exam, regardless of which depth version of the exam is taken. This blog aims to provide an overview of soil phase relationship concepts, terminology, and the basic calculations involved in solving for soil component volumes and weights.

In this blog:

1. Soil Phases

2. Specific Weight of Water and the Specific Gravity of Soil Solids

3. Soil's Five Potential Variables

4. Volume and Weight of Water and Solids

5. Other Terms to Know

6. Dry Unit Weight vs. Saturated Unit Rate

1. Soil Phases

Soil can be understood to have three "phases." Specifically, these are the solids within a soil, the voids between these solids which are occupied by air, and the voids between the solids which are filled with water. The various proportions of these phases within a given soil contribute to its behavior and properties.

2. Specific Weight of Water and the Specific Gravity of Soil Solids

Before discussing concepts and calculations related to the soil phases themselves, it is necessary to understand the specific weight of water and the specific gravity of the solids portion of soils. The constant value known as the specific weight of water can be understood as the weight of water in pounds within a cubic foot of volume of water. Specifically, the value of water's specific weight is 62.4 lb/cubic ft. The constant value known as the specific gravity of soil solids is a dimensionless unit which can be understood as the ratio of the typical density of the soil solids within a soil to the density of water within a unit volume. It is not actually a consistent number but varies by the type of soil being considered, and it is also an average value based on the different types of particles within the soil (it being assumed that the soil is homogenous). It can be taken, however, as typically ranging between 2.6 and 2.85. For some organic soils, however, it can be substantially lower. The value for a particular soil can be determined by performing a specific gravity test on the soil. For the purposes of the exam, if a calculation problem involving soil phases is given, this value would likely be given so that some other value related to the soil composition can be determined.

3. Soil's Five Potential Variables

In terms of phase relationships, soil can be understood to involve five potential variables. Namely, these are the individual volumes of the solids, air (empty voids), and water (filled voids), as well as the weights of the solids and the water. Note that the weight of the air-filled voids is considered negligible. Given the information we have about the specific weight of water and the specific gravity of soil solids, any of the five variables could be solved for if three are given. The exam taker should therefore be familiar with how to solve for any of the variables by understanding the relationships between them, as follows.

4. Volume and Weight of Water and Solids

The volume of water can be calculated by dividing the weight of water by the specific weight of water. The volume of solids can be determined by dividing the weight of solids by the product of the specific gravity of soil solids and the specific weight of water. Likewise, the weight of water can be determined by multiplying the volume of water by the specific gravity of water. The weight of solids can be determined by multiplying the volume of solids by the product of the specific gravity of soil solids and the specific weight of water. Any of the volumes can be found by subtracting two other volume components from the overall volume. For example, the air volume is the difference between the overall volume and the sum of the soil and water volumes. Similarly, the weight of an unknown component (water or solid) can be found by subtracting the overall weight by the known component (water or solid). A phase diagram is a useful tool for visualizing the content of the soil (solids, empty voids, and water-filled voids) and their associated variables by separating them into different regions of the diagram. The above-described calculations can then be done as needed to determine the unknown variables of the diagram.

5. Other Terms to Know

There are a number of other terms related to soil content that the exam-taker should be familiar with which are all defined by particular ratios involving the above-described weights and volumes of a soil. A soil's degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the overall volume of voids within a soil (filled or not). It is sometimes expressed as a percentage, with 100% being a fully saturated soil containing no air voids. A soil's porosity is defined as the ratio of its volume of voids (filled or not) to its total volume (including solids and voids). A soil's water content can be found by dividing the weight of a soil's water by the weight of its solids. Finally, what is known as a soil's void ratio can be found by dividing the total volume of voids (filled or not) by the volume of solids.

6. Dry Unit Weight vs. Saturated Unit Rate

One should be familiar also with the concept of a soil's dry unit weight as well as its saturated unit weight. A soil's dry unit weight can be understood, in terms of phase relationships, as the unit weight of a soil when there is no water present within the void spaces of the soil. The dry weight can be determined by laboratory test after oven-drying the soil. A saturated unit weight, by contrast, is the unit weight of a soil when the void spaces are entirely occupied by water. Completely dry soil as well as completely saturated soil are sometimes referred to as "two-phased" soils since they are lacking in the water component and the air component, respectively. Because of the necessary arrangement of solids within soils, all soils have at least some number of voids within them. Therefore, it is not possible to have a single-phased soil.

Summary

In summary, FE exam-takers should be familiar with the basic concepts of soil mechanics including those related to phase relationships for soils, how various unknown variables may be solved for given particular information about the soil content, the various terminology related to the ratios of these variables, and the concepts of dry unit weight and saturated unit weight.

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

Water Resources - Water Quality and Drinking Water Distribution and Treatment

Those planning to take the Water Resources and Environmental Depth version of the PE Civil exam need to be familiar with the topics of Water Quality and Drinking Water Treatment. This blog will provide an overview of the relevant subtopics with which the exam-taker should be familiar. My intention is not to cover these topics in depth but to provide an introduction to the items which you should study further for the exam.

Aspects of water quality determination and analysis covered on the exam include: stream degradation; oxygen dynamics; total maximum daily load; biological contaminants; and chemical contaminants, which includes the topic of bioaccumulation.

In this blog,

1. Steam Degradation

2. Oxygen Dynamics

3. Total Maximum Daily Load

4. Biological Contaminants

5. Chemical Contaminants

6. Water Distribution and Treatment

7. Drinking Water Distribution Systems

8. Drinking Water Treatment Processes

9. Water Hardness

10. Unfavorable Taste and Smell

1. Steam Degradation

Stream degradation refers to reduced water quality in a stream as a result of various types of pollution, erosion, or environmental degradation. The quality of the water may be considered to be degraded based on measurements of water temperature, turbidity (the clarity of the water), low dissolved oxygen levels (potentially due to microorganisms), pH balance, and/or the amount of solids content, which includes total solids (TS), total suspended solids (TSS), and total dissolved solids (TDS). Chemicals, such as from agricultural or industrial sources, which may flow into streams through surface runoff, are also contributors to stream degradation.

2. Oxygen Dynamics

Exam-takers should be familiar with concepts related to the determination of saturated content of dissolved oxygen, which is based on Henry's law. In terms of oxygen dynamics, it is also necessary to understand biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) and how they are determined.

3. Total Maximum Daily Load

Total maximum daily load (TMDL) is a concept in water quality which refers to the maximum quantity of pollutant that could potentially flow into a body of water on a daily basis without the water exceeding set maximum pollution levels. It is calculated as the sum of allocated waste loads from point sources, allocated loads from non-point sources, and a safety margin.

4. Biological Contaminants

Contaminants of concern in water that are biological in nature include bacteria such as E. coli (and other coliforms), Legionella, Cryptosporidium, Giardia lamblia, as well as enteric viruses. These specific microorganisms of concern (with the exception of Legionella) are largely associated with human and animal fecal waste contamination of water. The overall concentration of bacteria in a water source can be measured with a heterotrophic plate count (HPC). It should be noted that bacteria are naturally present in water sources, but lower concentrations of bacteria (as measured by an HPC test) can indicate a higher quality of water.

5. Chemical Contaminants

Chemical contaminants of concern for drinking water include inorganic contaminants (IOCs), volatile organic contaminants (VOCs), and synthetic organic contaminants (SOCs). Common IOCs of concern include arsenic, nitrate, nitrite, asbestos, lead, and copper. Bioaccumulation is the accumulation of contaminants within an organism as a result of ingestion of the contaminants.

6. Water Distribution and Treatment

Aspects of drinking water distribution and treatment that are covered on the exam include: drinking water distribution systems, drinking water treatment processes, demands, storage, sedimentation, taste and odor control, rapid mixing (such as with coagulation), flocculation, filtration, disinfection (including the byproducts of disinfection), and water hardness and softening.

7. Drinking Water Distribution Systems

The typical municipal systems for the distribution of public drinking water consist of a water source, treatment plant, storage tanks, and water mains and pipes which convey the water to the points at which the water can be consumed.

It should be noted that the enforced drinking water quality standards at the national level in the United States are set by the EPA in the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs). These set maximum contaminant levels (MCLs). The water quality standards were first set in 1974 with the passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). The act has since been amended in 1986 and 1996 with updates to the list of contaminants which must be limited and the particular concentration levels which define those limits.

8. Drinking Water Treatment Processes

The treatment plants utilize processes of treatment that typically include a number of steps. These include rapid mixing (such as with coagulation), flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. The coagulation step aims to collect small and dissolved pollutants into larger particles resulting from their mixing and binding with chemicals, such as salts, which are introduced into the water. The flocculation step also involves the introduction of chemicals into the water, with the intention of forming "flocs," which are clusters of solids that can more easily be removed from the water than the smaller individual particles. These flocs settle to the bottom of a tank in the sedimentation step of the treatment process. Filtration involves the passage of the water (which has been separated from the flocs) through various filtering media, which may include charcoal, gravel, and sand. This step aims to remove any remaining sizable particulate matter from the water. Ultrafiltration is sometimes also done either as an additional step or as a substitution for the traditional filtration methods. This involves the use of a filter membrane with very small openings. The water is finally treated with disinfectants, such as chlorine, in order to prevent contamination by microorganisms both in the water leaving the treatment plant and in the water mains and pipes which carry the water from the plant to the points of use. Sometimes ultraviolet light is used for disinfection purposes either in addition to the chemical treatment or as a substitution.

9. Water Hardness

Water hardness refers to the total amount of dissolved minerals in water, typically calcium, magnesium, and iron. Though not typically a concern for health, it often leaves mineral buildup on pipes and fixtures. This buildup is also referred to as "scale." Because the particular elements contribute differently to the amount of hardness, they must be put into equivalent terms before adding them together to find the total hardness. The equivalent concentrations can be found by dividing the measured mineral concentrations by the equivalent weights of the elements. Water softness is, by contrast, a relatively low amount of dissolved minerals.

10. Unfavorable Taste and Smell

When it comes to unfavorable taste and smell of supplied drinking water, it can be caused by a number of factors. These often occur where secondary maximum contamination levels (SMCLs) are exceeded. These concentration levels are set in the National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations established by the EPA. These are guidelines are not required to be met by most jurisdictions but are recommendations for water quality that the agency sets. Where the concentrations of the contaminants exceed the recommended levels, though they are not understood to be risks to health, they can cause unpleasant taste, smell, or appearance, which can alarm consumers. These contaminants are also sometimes referred to as nuisance constituents. Contaminants negatively affecting taste or smell include chloride, iron, sulfates, and copper, among others. Those which may negatively affect appearance include aluminum, copper, and manganese, among others. The presence of silver in water can cause skin discoloration (though it is sometimes used for its antibacterial properties in home water treatment systems). Excess fluoride can cause tooth discoloration in children. The methods by which the odors, unpleasant tastes, and other negative effects can be controlled involve limiting the concentrations of these contaminants through processes at the water treatment plant.

Summary

Water quality and treatment is an important topic as it directly affects human health and well-being. For those taking the Water Resources and Environmental Depth version of the PE exam, it is especially important to have a thorough knowledge of the particular water quality contamination issues which water supply systems face and the processes by which the water is treated to resolve these issues and provide quality water to end users.

When you take one of School of PE's PE Civil exam review courses, our subject-matter expert instructors will guide you through each exam topic with respect to NCEES' exam specifications. Register for a course today!

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

How to Become a Transportation Engineer: Steps toward a Dynamic Career in Civil Engineering

Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that deals with aspects of engineering related to the planning, design, maintenance, operations, and analysis of transportation systems. This includes transportation systems such as roads and highways, bus networks and busways, railways, light rail and subways, pedestrian networks, and aviation, among others. It is a dynamic discipline which has evolved and will continue to evolve as transportation networks and technology change over time. Of particular importance for the future is the design and construction of more sustainable transportation networks and infrastructure, and transportation engineers can play an important role in this development. In recent years, the field has seen the development of intelligent transportation systems (ITS) and an evolution in the use of ridesharing platforms, autonomous vehicles, and other technological developments. How does one pursue a successful career in the evolving field of transportation engineering? This blog will discuss the path to licensure and realizing one's career goals in the profession.

This blog covers:

1. Transportation Engineering Begins with Civil Engineering

2. Undergraduate Engineering Programs

3. Obtaining Work Experience

4. Finding the Right Engineering Firm

5. Taking Exams

6. PE Exam

7. Obtaining Licensure

1. Transportation Engineering Begins with Civil Engineering

As transportation engineering is considered a branch of the broader discipline of civil engineering, the typical path toward becoming a transportation engineer begins with enrollment in a civil engineering undergraduate program. Even before college, if a student is interested in the pursuit of engineering as a career path, there are now many high schools across the country that focus on STEM education (STEM being an acronym for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). In any event, a strong background in these areas of study is helpful in beginning studies in civil engineering.

2. Undergraduate Engineering Programs

Most undergraduate programs in engineering begin with courses in the general sciences and mathematics before beginning courses, which are more specialized towards the specific engineering discipline being pursued-in this case, civil engineering. Within many civil engineering undergraduate programs, there is the opportunity to have a concentration in one or more branches of civil engineering, including transportation engineering. Other branches of civil engineering include structural engineering, geotechnical engineering, water resources engineering (including hydraulics and hydrology), environmental engineering (including wastewater treatment), and construction management. The best way to begin your career in transportation engineering is to take courses offered by your program with a focus on topics in this area of study. These may include courses on highway geometric design, traffic analysis and signal design, transportation infrastructure planning, or other topics in transportation studies. Certainly, attending graduate school allows for the opportunity to take such specialized courses and obtain an advanced degree in transportation engineering, as well as the ability to do research which helps shape the future of the profession. Obtaining such an advanced degree gives an obvious advantage in finding work in this field, but it is also an opportunity to gain the specialized knowledge which one will need to specialize in this branch of civil engineering.

3. Obtaining Work Experience

Whether or not an advanced degree is obtained, it is necessary to gain work experience in an engineering office, typically for at least four years, as a requirement towards gaining licensure as a professional engineer. Even while still in school, it is a good idea to seek out internship opportunities to start gaining work experience, obtain familiarity with the profession, and to begin building a professional network. An additional benefit to working as an intern is that firms often rehire former interns for full time positions after their graduation.

4. Finding the Right Engineering Firm

It is important for emerging transportation engineering professionals to find the right engineering firm for them. There are many factors to consider in choosing a place of employment. Ideally, one should seek out a place of employment where mentorship is taken seriously and there are opportunities to work on project types in which one is interested. It is all too easy to get sidetracked from the pursuit of one's professional goals if one does not seek out the support necessary for career development. It is best to seek out a company which is known for their expertise in transportation engineering and which also has senior engineers willing to provide mentorship and guide your professional development. Many firms have regular employee review meetings, and these are great opportunities to discuss professional goals with your employer.

5. Taking Exams

Along with the work experience requirement (which varies by state), engineers must pass both the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam and the Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exam. The FE exam is the first of the two exams to be taken. Among other topics, the Civil FE exam includes questions on transportation engineering, specifically on geometric design, pavement system design, traffic capacity and flow theory, traffic control devices, and transportation planning. It is advised for recent graduates to begin planning their approach to studying for and taking their Civil FE exam within the first couple of years of graduation if possible. This allows for many of the exam topics to still be relatively fresh in one's mind from one's studies so that with study one can reinforce one's knowledge and be well prepared for the exam. Regardless of when one chooses to take the FE exam and the PE exam (and it is never too late), one should take advantage of the many study resources which are now easily available, including online courses, study guide books and e-books, and practice questions and exams.

6. PE Exam

The Civil PE exam is typically taken after completing the necessary years of work experience required by the state in which one is pursuing licensure, though the rules may vary by state. The Civil PE exam is a "breadth and depth" exam meaning that candidates are tested on a breadth portion which tests their broad knowledge of the various areas of civil engineering and a depth portion which is specific to a particular branch of civil engineering. The transportation depth version of the exam covers topics including traffic engineering, horizontal and vertical geometric design, intersection geometry, roadside and cross-section design, signal and traffic control design, geotechnical and pavement, drainage, and alternatives analysis.

7. Obtaining Licensure

Obtaining licensure as a civil engineer is only one step in the process of becoming a successful transportation engineer, albeit an important one. It is important to continue to keep professional development goals in mind and discuss them with your employer regularly. An employer will likely be keen to assist in your professional growth and advancement. It is important for emerging professionals to use their early years in the profession to develop a strong knowledge base. Whether one chooses to pursue a management position or a more technical role in the later years of one's career, this foundation will be invaluable for one's development and future success. It is also beneficial to cultivate one's skills in both written and verbal communication, as well as one's ability to work on teams. Develop a sense of curiosity and seek out opportunities for learning all aspects of the profession, from planning and design to an understanding of construction issues. This will make you valuable as an employee but also establish you as a well-rounded professional. Continuing education is also necessary both to maintain licensure as well as to remain informed of continuing developments in the field. Joining professional societies and attending industry conferences are additional ways to gain industry knowledge and network with other professionals.

Summary

In summary, though there are several steps necessary to becoming a transportation engineer, this should not be a deterrent to those seeking a successful professional career in this area of practice. With careful planning, goal setting, and the thoughtful use of professional development resources, one can put oneself on a trajectory to a long and successful career in this dynamic field.

Don't forget to check out School of PE's FE and PE Civil exam review courses! Our subject-matter expert instructors, comprehensive course content, and innovative learning technology will provide you the building blocks to success!

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standards

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is an international standards organization focused on developing technical standards for a variety of industrial applications. The organization was founded in 1898 by Charles Dudley, who was a Chemist with the Pennsylvania Railroad. While investigating rail breakage fractures, he noted there were different variations in steel quality and published his research on the subject. This subsequently led to the drafting of initial standards that have grown over the years. ASTM was renamed as ASTM International in 2001 and today has its headquarters located in West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania. ASTM International does not formally enforce its standards, but these practices can be enforced by federal, state, and municipal regulations.

Standardization News is published on the ASTM website and Standard Specifications can be purchased through their website too. Standards are published each year for technical quality subjects such as metals, plastics, petroleum, textiles, paints, construction, energy, environmental, medical, electronics, and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). There are over 30,000 volunteer members in over 140 countries. I have worked with different ASTM standards for both steel and plastic pipeline in the oil and gas industry. There are generally six (6) types of features that you will see with an ASTM document, including Test Method, Specification, Classification, Practice, Guide, and Terminology. You may also see other sections such as Scope, Reference Documents, Terminology, Significance and Use, Procedure, Report, and Keywords. The Documents are like school lab reports since they can include tabulated data, graphs, preliminary site studies, safety, regulations, equations, units, and material properties as well.

In this blog:

1. Class A: Iron and Steel Materials

2. Class B: Nonferrous Metal Materials

3. Class C: Ceramic, Concrete, and Masonry Materials

4. Class D: Miscellaneous Materials

5. Class E: Miscellaneous Subjects

6. Class F: Materials for Specific Applications

7. Class G: Corrosion, Deterioration, and Degradation of Materials

1. Class A: Iron and Steel Materials

Class A items for ASTM include iron and steel materials. This includes different ferrous attributes such as structure, grades, castings, alloys, and testing for steel products. Steel is a staple of the world economy so the name "ASTM International" certainly fits for worldwide applications. Manufacturers must produce components with quality specifications for ductility, ultimate tensile strength, and percent elongation to ensure they are meeting both regulation and safety requirements. As mentioned earlier, ASTM does not directly enforce their standards, but they naturally must be followed so metallic structures maintain their integrity. ASTM A370 specifically covers mechanical testing for steel products.

2. Class B: Nonferrous Metal Materials

The next ASTM designation is for Class B, nonferrous metal materials. This includes many metals that you would see in the periodic table, such as copper, aluminium, gold, and silver. Steel is widely used, which is probably why ASTM A is exclusively reserved for iron and steel. Remember, steel in its basic form is an alloy of carbon (C) and iron (Fe). There are so many applications and procedures that other metallic materials are separate from steel. Brass (66% Copper, 34% Zinc) is also under the ASTM B umbrella. ASTM B16 is for free-cutting brass rod, bar, and wire, including the chemical composition and Rockwell hardness. Other industry tests such as Rockwell hardness and Charpy impact test help to shape ASTM documents, so you can again see how their standards are naturally enforced in the conception of certain designs and practices.

3. Class C: Ceramic, Concrete, and Masonry Materials

Class C is for ceramic, concrete, and masonry materials. Glass is also included with the ASTM C designation. ASTM C1036 contains information about flat glass for architectural products such as mirrors and laminated glass, so you can see aesthetics also play a role in the development of standards. ASTM C67 and C126 involve testing structural brick and clay tile, including compressive strength. I took a ceramics class in high school; while the focus was mainly on it being an art class, there was science involved with the firing process, bringing clay and glazes to a desired final form. Cracking and explosion can occur if not handled properly. One of my trays was flawed, so I learned that first-hand with fissures occurring in my so-called work of art.

ASTM C387 is a specification for concrete mixtures. Concrete has high compressive strength, but weak ultimate tensile strength. When walking on a concrete sidewalk, you will notice that the concrete blocks do not sink due to their high hardness. Concrete is a composite material of water mixed with cement. There are different variations of concrete with portland cement being the most common cementitious material used worldwide. Ceramics generally have high hardness and low toughness (less resistance to fracturing compared to metals). ASTM C144 has masonry information about gradation for joint sand.

4. Class D: Miscellaneous Materials

ASTM Class D refers to miscellaneous materials, including plastics. ASTM does not seem to have a true classification that is exclusive for plastics, so it falls under the miscellaneous category. As I said before, steel is a staple of the world economy, so that would have precedence. Specification ASTM D3350 is the standard for polyethylene plastics; the cell classification of materials is tested according to primary properties such as density, tensile strength, and slow crack growth resistance. Different compounds are used for the manufacturing of high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and they must undergo testing as the ASTM name implies! There are different forms of connecting plastic pipe and fittings with ASTM D3261 as one example, utilizing butt heat fusion. Other topics in the Miscellaneous Materials category include pH of Water (D1293), Elements in Water (D1976), and Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity of Water (D1125).

5. Class E: Miscellaneous Subjects

ASTM Class E involves miscellaneous subjects. This class seems to include the subject of fire, with topics such as Fire Tests for Building Materials (ASTM E119), Surface Flammability of Materials (ASTM E162), and Optical Density of Smoke (ASTM E662). Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials (ASTM E84) are included too, as well as Air Permeance of Building Materials (ASTM E2178). Water also appears to be one of the miscellaneous subjects, with Water Vapor Transmission (ASTM E96) and Water Penetration of Exterior Windows and Doors (ASTM E1105) being classified with the ASTM E designation. In addition to fire and water, ASTM E23 involves the Charpy impact test and antimicrobial screening tests are part of the ASTM E2149 specification.

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6. Class F: Materials for Specific Applications

ASTM Class F refers to materials for specific applications. Type F can certainly be specific, as I once came across a Standard for Structural Design of Thermoplastic Chambers (ASTM F2787)! Most companies and manufacturers will have general system and design guidelines, but you do need a specific standard for each application; there is no true universal standard that can fit all applications. I have seen this from different soil lab testing and geotechnical studies. Every application and geographic location can be different, but that is the fun of research. In the oil and gas industry, I have seen Class F standards for Solid Wall HDPE Conduit (ASTM F2160) and Joining HDPE Conduit with Mechanical Couplings (ASTM F2176). ASTM F1668 is about construction procedures for buried plastic pipe, but you can see from earlier that ASTM A would be better suited for steel pipe.

7. Class G: Corrosion, Deterioration, and Degradation of Materials

ASTM Class G refers to corrosion, deterioration, and degradation of materials. Deterioration and degradation are important facets in the field of materials science since you are studying failure theory and predicting material performance in certain conditions. It is imperative for manufacturers and vendors to test their products and identify different tolerance ranges so they can make appropriate recommendations for their product selection. And as an engineer, you must be able to choose the correct equipment for a particular design. If the wrong equipment is ordered, this can lead to lost expenditures as well as lost time and other ramifications if equipment is utilized with the incorrect components.

ASTM G154 evaluates changes in material properties when operating fluorescent UV lamps for non-metallic materials. For ASTM G154, environmental conditions are controlled when testable items are exposed to fluorescent UV light, since you are trying to simulate actual conditions that may occur in a live scenario. Corrosion can occur in metallic materials, but since corrosion is its own entity as electrochemistry, it is separate from ASTM A and ASTM B specifications. For example, ASTM B covers general aluminium specifications, but ASTM G69 is for the corrosion potential of aluminium alloys.

Summary

Engineering is an exciting profession: there are always new things to learn and always new standards that can be developed to better both our industry and society. As the engineering profession is always growing, we will continue to need professionals educating themselves. You should always be studious; not just for passing the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) and Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exams or even for your continuing education hours, but also for personal growth. You can browse different industry magazines and websites for more information, and be sure to check back with School of PE for more blog posts too!

About the Author: Gregory Nicosia

Gregory Nicosia, PE is an engineer who has been practicing in the industry for eight years. His background includes natural gas, utilities, mechanical, and civil engineering. He earned his chemical engineering undergraduate degree at Drexel University (2014) and master's in business administration (MBA) from Penn State Harrisburg (2018). He received his EIT designation in 2014 and PE license in 2018. Mr. Nicosia firmly believes in continuing to grow his skillset to become a more well-rounded engineer and adapt to an ever-changing world.

9 Things You Should Know About Hydraulics: A Hydrology Review

Those taking the PE Civil exam should be familiar with the topics of Hydraulics and Hydrology. These topics are covered on the exam regardless of which depth version of the exam is selected. Aside from the Water Resources and Environmental depth exam, which covers these topics in depth, the other exams cover these topics with six to nine questions. Although at first glance, this may not seem to be a large number of questions, it is actually among the topics of the greatest coverage in the breadth portion of the exam. It is therefore especially important to be familiar with these topics to pass the exam.

The blog covers,

1. Hydraulics

2. Open Channel Flow

3. Closed Conduit Flow

4. Hydrology

5. Storm Characteristics within Hydrology

6. Stormwater Collection and Drainage

7. Runoff Analysis

8. Reading Hydrographs

9. Retention Ponds

1. Hydraulics

The term hydraulics refers to the analysis and engineering of open channel and closed conduit flow systems on the basis of the principles of fluid mechanics. At the level of basic fluid mechanics, it's important to know that the behavior of fluids can be understood by the principles of the conservation of mass, the conservation of energy, and the conservation of momentum. In particular, exam-takers should be familiar with using the Bernoulli equation, which is the equation for the conservation of energy of a fluid. Essentially, it relates the pressure, speed, and height of a fluid at two different points within a changing cross-section of piping.

2. Open Channel Flow

With open channel flow, a fluid is not flowing under pressure within a closed conduit, and its behavior is consequently based primarily upon gravity and the slopes of the channels it flows within. The volumetric flow rate in an open channel is simply the average velocity of the fluid multiplied by the fluid's cross-sectional area. The velocity can be determined with one of two formulas: the Chezy-Manning equation or the Hazen-Williams equation. These formulas, the specifics of which will not be discussed here but with which the exam-taker should be familiar, take into consideration the effects of the friction which occurs between the fluid and the surfaces of the channel through which it flows. It should be noted that the hydraulic radius of a fluid in an open channel is the ratio of the fluid's cross-sectional area to its wetted perimeter (which is that portion of the channel section which is contact with the fluid).

3. Closed Conduit Flow

Closed conduit flow, in contrast to open channel flow, is characterized by a fluid's flow under pressure. Friction losses for closed conduits are calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which can be used for the laminar or turbulent flow conditions of any fluid, or the Hazen-Williams equation, which can be used for the turbulent flow conditions of water. The Darcy-Weisbach equation utilizes what is known as the Reynolds number as well as the roughness of the pipe to determine the friction loss. The Hazen-Williams equation also factors in the roughness of the pipe, utilizing constant for different pipe materials. Exam-takers should be familiar with these equations for determining friction losses in closed conduits.

4. Hydrology

Hydrology is the study of the distribution and movement of water over and underneath the earth's surface. For the purposes of study for the PE Civil exam, it is necessary to be familiar with storm characteristics, stormwater collection and drainage, runoff analysis, and the use of retention and detention ponds.

5. Storm Characteristics within Hydrology

Storm characteristics in hydrology include storm frequency as well as rainfall measurement and distribution. The concept of rainfall intensity is used in several equations in hydrology. It is the amount of rain in depth over a period of time and can be measured with a rain gauge. Storm frequency can be understood as the likelihood that a storm of particular intensity may occur in any given year. For example, a 20-year storm would have a probability of occurrence of 1/20 in a given year, and a 100-year storm would have a probability of 1/100. Historical data on rainfall intensity and storm frequency is often available on a regional graph of intensity-duration-frequency curves, which can be used to determine the time of concentration for a flow for a particular storm frequency. Time of concentration is the amount of time which it takes for water from the furthest point in a watershed area to reach the point of analysis, and thus it is the time needed for all areas within the watershed area to start contributing to the storm discharge.

6. Stormwater Collection and Drainage

Systems of stormwater collection and drainage include the components of surface drainage such as over street and gutters, culverts, stormwater inlets, and stormwater pipes. The design of the system is intended to provide for the efficient drainage of stormwater and reduce the risk of flooding. Where impervious surfaces carry surface flow, such as along paved areas, streets and gutters, the slopes along with the sectional cross slopes are designed to channel water into stormwater inlets such as catch basins or curb inlets. These collect the surface water into the underground drainpipes which connect to the main stormwater line. Culverts are conduits which allow for the flow of surface water below a roadway or an embankment.

7. Runoff Analysis

Runoff analysis utilizes hydrographs which are based on data from a storm in a particular area. There are different graphical methods which are used to separate the base flow conditions from the additional flow which is a result of a storm event. From this analysis a unit hydrograph can be plotted which isolates the excess flow from the storm event. It plots the discharge (typically in cubic feet per second) over the course of a storm event such that the graphical representation of the data allows for an understanding of a storm's peak flow and it when it occurs. This can be used to help predict the peak discharge for other future storms with different rainfall amounts.

8. Reading Hydrographs

It should be noted that the hydrograph indicates the particular time lag which occurs for peak flows given the particular topography, terrain, and other factors. A significant factor influencing the shape of the hydrograph curve is the amount of development within the catchment area and specifically the permeability of its surfaces. In permeable surfaces, there is a certain amount of time before the ground has reached maximum absorption and the surface begins to carry runoff. In contrast, paved areas will carry the storm water immediately as surface runoff. Thus, the amount of impermeable area within the catchment area will influence the shape of the curve represented in the hydrograph and the peak flow occurring during a storm event.

9. Retention Ponds

Retention ponds are structures which are used to retain water in the event of a storm so that the area's stormwater drainage system is not overwhelmed in the event of a large storm. They can be thought of as being similar to a water body held back by a dam which has a controlled outflow. The water level of the retention pond fluctuates based on precipitation amounts of storm events. Hydrographic analysis can be utilized to determine the necessary size of a retention pond to accommodate a storm of a particular frequency. Unlike retention ponds, which typically have some level of water in them in normal conditions, detention ponds are typically dry except during storm events. Both serve to reduce storm water discharge rates and the risk of flooding. They can also aid in allowing for the settling of suspended sediments, pollutants, and other particles present in the storm runoff, thus aiding in the improvement of water quality.

Conclusion

It is important for takers of the PE Civil exam to understand the basics of both hydraulics and hydrology as these topics are covered on all of the depth versions of the exam. The above summary serves as a short review of basic concepts which should be studied in more detail as these represent the topics for which there may be several questions on the exam.

School of PE's exam review courses provide the resources and tools you need to prepare for and pass your FE and PE exams. Interested in learning more or signing up for a course? Get in touch with us today!

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.