Across State Lines: Does It Matter Where You Take Your FE Exam?

An engineer’s first step to obtaining their professional license is passing their Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam. As candidates prepare for this important examination, they often wonder whether the state in which they choose to take the FE exam truly makes a difference. In this blog, we will delve deeper into this topic, exploring various factors to consider when selecting the state in which to pursue the FE exam.

The National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) is responsible for designing and administering the FE exam nationwide. However, the actual administration of the exam falls under the jurisdiction of individual state engineering boards. While the exam content remains consistent across states, there are significant considerations to keep in mind when deciding on the optimal state to take the FE exam.

In this Blog,

1. Licensure Portability

2. Exam Availability and Scheduling

3. Competency of State Exam Administrators

4. Networking and Job Opportunities

Licensure Portability

One crucial factor to consider is licensure portability. Upon passing the FE exam and earning your Engineer-in-Training (EIT) certification, you will have made a major step towards becoming a licensed professional engineer (PE). However, the specific requirements for PE licensure can vary from state to state. Some states have additional prerequisites, such as extra exams or work experience. Therefore, if you have a particular state in mind where you intend to work as a professional engineer, it may be beneficial to take the FE exam in that state to align with its specific licensure requirements.

Exam Availability and Scheduling

Another vital aspect to consider is the availability and scheduling of the exam in your desired state. While the FE exam is typically offered throughout the year, the dates and locations can vary. It is essential to consult the NCEES website or the state engineering board's website for exam availability in your chosen state. Opting for a state that offers more frequent exam administrations and flexible scheduling can provide you with greater options and convenience.

Competency of State Exam Administrators

The efficiency and professionalism of the state engineering board responsible for administering the FE exam can significantly impact your testing experience. Some state boards have established a reputation for well-organized and streamlined exam administration processes. Researching and considering feedback from candidates who have previously taken the FE exam in different states can provide valuable insights into the quality of exam administration.

Networking and Job Opportunities

The state where you take the FE exam can also have implications for networking opportunities and future job prospects. Taking the exam in a state with a vibrant engineering community can provide you with chances to connect with professionals and potential employers. If there is a specific state in mind where you intend to work as a licensed PE, consider taking the FE exam in that state, as this can help you establish local connections and build a local professional network.

 

Conclusion

While the content of the FE exam remains consistent across states, various factors should be carefully considered when choosing the state in which to take the exam. Licensure portability, exam availability, scheduling, the competency of state exam administrators, and networking opportunities are all vital aspects to evaluate. Thoughtfully analyzing these factors will enable you to make an informed decision that aligns with your career goals. Not only would you have to consider when and how you approach the FE, but also where you take the FE; this decision can positively impact your journey towards becoming a licensed professional engineer.

No matter where you decide to take your FE exam, School of PE can help you every step of the way. We have a wide array of FE courses designed to help you pass on your first try. Check them out now!

About the Author: Khoa Tran

Khoa Tran is an electrical engineer working at the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and is currently pursuing his master's in electrical Power from the University of Southern California. He is fluent in both Vietnamese and English and is interested in outdoor activities and exploring new things.

Location Matters: The Impact of Neighborhood Context on Project Design

Among the topics covered in the Project Planning and Design portion of the ARE is the impact of neighborhood context on project design. Consideration of the project site’s neighborhood includes access to nearby transportation, commercial amenities, and public spaces, such as parks, trails, and waterfronts. Utility infrastructure must be considered, as well as environmental factors such as noise pollution in an urban environment. Additionally, the spatial, material, and cultural aspects of surrounding buildings should be considered, particularly in areas of historic character where there may be historic preservation requirements or established design standards for building forms, façade elements, or materials. Navigating the various requirements and constraints of the project site context can be a challenge but also an opportunity for a design that responds productively and creatively to the local context and its resources.

In this Blog,

1. Local Transportation

2. Utility Infrastructure

3. Noise Pollution

4. Spatial, Material, and Cultural Effects on Perception

5. Zoning Ordinances

6. Design Standards and Guidelines

7. Community Board Presentations

8. Conclusion

Local Transportation

Proximity to various modes of transportation is an attractive feature for building projects, particularly residential and office projects, as it can allow for commuting via public transportation. This can include metro, rail, and bus services, among others. Such modes of transportation can allow for reduced dependency on automobiles, resulting in less traffic on roadways and a reduction in pollution and carbon emissions. When considering a site, it is advisable to consider walking distance to bus stops, rail stations, and metro stations. The closer the walking distance, the more likely it is that people will choose to take that mode of transportation rather than drive. Safe and extensive bicycle routes are also a positive feature to have within the neighborhood, reducing dependency on automobiles and providing a more sustainable transportation option. Where a building is to be designed in an area with extensive bike routes, it is advisable to provide bike storage on site along with showers for those who might commute to the building by bicycle. Ideally, a site is within walking distance of commercial and public destinations nearby, not only to reduce congestion on transportation systems but also as an attractive amenity for the occupants of the building, which can increase the building’s value for the owner, and encourage healthy and active lifestyles of the occupants. Some common attractive commercial amenities are restaurants, cafes, stores, gyms, banks, and workplaces. Walkability to such amenities is more likely in areas of greater density, particularly where local zoning ordinances allow for a mixture of uses. Public spaces that can add value to the property include public parks, playgrounds, waterfronts, and bicycle or walking trails.

Utility Infrastructure

The utility infrastructure of a site can have an impact on the project design. It should be determined whether the site has access to municipal storm lines. If not, careful consideration should be given to how stormwater will be directed from the site. Green roofs, permeable paving, rain gardens, bioswales, and other features can be used to reduce surface runoff from the site. The local jurisdiction may have limitations on the percentage of the lot, which may be covered in non-permeable paving. In rural locations where there may be no access to sanitary lines, an on-site wastewater treatment system, such as a septic tank, is necessary. In terms of water supply, it is necessary to determine the water pressure which can be supplied to the project, particularly where sprinkler systems are to be utilized. If the pressure is not adequate, then a fire pump may be necessary. These are just a few of the circumstances to consider when reviewing the utility infrastructure of a site as it relates to the building design.

Noise Pollution

Depending on the project location and the use of the building, the potential effect of noise pollution on building occupants should be considered. For example, a hotel located in close proximity to an airport, an office space in the city on the ground floor, or a concert hall might all need special consideration given to the mitigation of sound transmission from the surrounding environment. It may also be necessary to consider light pollution from the building project, particularly if there are local ordinance requirements in the jurisdiction to limit the amount of light emitted from the site. This is sometimes referred to as dark sky compliance. Light pollution can have a negative effect on humans as well as wildlife, disrupting circadian rhythms and causing other negative health effects, in addition to having detrimental effects on our experience of the environment.

Spatial, Material, and Cultural Effects on Perception

The spatial, material, and cultural aspects of the neighborhood should be analyzed prior to the building design. Whether the designer’s approach is to blend in, complement, or stand out from the surrounding built environment, it is necessary to understand the context to properly formulate a design response. Not only do these aspects of the neighborhood affect the perception and experience of a proposed building design, but depending on the local jurisdiction, there are typically at least some requirements that are necessary to be met for the project to receive a permit.

Zoning Ordinances

In addition to defining allowable building uses within a particular district, zoning ordinances may define required setbacks from property lines, limit building heights or number of stories, and establish floor area ratios. The floor area ratio (FAR) is the ratio of the total building area to the area of the lot on which it is built. For example, a FAR of 2 would mean that the total building area is allowed to be up to 2 times the area of the lot. Zoning ordinances can have a substantial impact on building massing and form. Aside from zoning ordinance limitations, the spatial context of the surrounding neighborhood should be considered in order for the building to be designed to appear on an appropriate scale in relation to adjacent buildings.

Design Standards and Guidelines

It should be determined whether the project site is located within a historic district, which will put further constraints on design possibilities. Even where not located within a historic district, local jurisdictions may have design standards or guidelines that must be followed. These can include limitations on the material palette, prescriptions for façade features, or other guidelines, the intent being to establish criteria by which a design can be deemed as not detrimental to the existing character of a neighborhood. While such guidelines can be based on subjective judgments, the constraints that they put on the designer must often be followed closely for the design to be approved and the project to be realized.

Community Board Presentations

Presentations to a community board are sometimes required, where the designer communicates the design features of the project and attempts to demonstrate compliance with the established planning standards. In other cases, where a project can have a substantial impact on a community, the design process may involve required meeting sessions with the community so that the design team can receive and incorporate feedback from community members into the design.

Conclusion

In summary, architects must be aware of the context of the neighborhood in which a project is situated. Consideration should be given to transportation access, utility infrastructure, zoning ordinances, nearby amenities, historic district requirements, local design standards, the spatial and aesthetic character of the neighborhood, and community input, among other factors. While project constraints resulting from local requirements and context can be challenging, they can also provide direction and opportunities for creative design solutions or even collaboration with local community groups. It is important that the architect considers the perspectives of all stakeholders, building users, and the surrounding community in all project designs. A building project can have a lasting impact on a local community, and as such, care and consideration should be made in all design decisions. A successful project is an asset to a community, providing benefits to the neighborhood that can extend beyond the building owner and the building users.

Master the Project Planning and Design division of the ARE® 5.0 exam with an exam review course from School of PE! We also have an exam review guide to help you along the way to exam-day success.

About the Author: Adam Castelli

Adam Castelli is a licensed architect and engineer currently practicing in the Pittsburgh area. He holds a master's degree in architecture from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Villanova University.

A Deep Dive on Digital Systems: Exploring Topics within the FE Electrical Exam Pt. 2

Welcome back to the topic of digital systems! We will continue where we left off and explore flip-flops and counters, programmable logic devices and gate arrays, state machine design, and timing (e.g., diagrams, asynchronous inputs, race conditions, and other hazards).

In this Blog,

1. Flip-flops and Counters

2. Programmable Logic Devices and Gate Arrays

3. State Machine Design

4. Timing

5. Conclusion

Flip-flops and Counters

Flip-flops are edge-sensitive devices that are controlled by clock transitions. Their behavior and output depend on the rising or falling edges of the clock signal. Incorporating flip-flops into a circuit also adds state properties to the circuit, meaning the output relies not only on the current input of the system but also on its previous inputs.

A flip-flop is a sequential logic device. Thus, it has two possible output states: 0 or 1. Another contributing attribute to the output is that it is synchronized with a clock signal (CLK), ensuring that changes in the output should occur at specific clock time intervals. The signal Qn represents the value of the flip-flop's output before the application of the CLK signal, while Q_n+1 represents the output value after the CLK signal has been applied. There are 3 basic flip-flops that you need to know for the FE exam: D flip-flop, SR flip-flop, and JK flip-flop.

1.D Flip Flop

Figure 1

The master-slave flip-flop exhibits distinct characteristics in its operation. A change to the input, D, will affect the “Master D latch”, while the slave output shall remain unchanged. As the clock pulses back to 0, the master section will be disabled, isolating it from the D input; simultaneously, the slave section then becomes enabled.

This change in master influence allows the value of Y to be transferred to the flip-flop's output at Q. Notably, a change in the flip-flop's output can only be triggered during the transition of the clock from 1 to 0, providing precise timing control for the circuit's behavior (Widmer et al., 2017, 260-261).

The truth table for the D flip-flop is shown below: 

D	Qn+1
0	0	Reset
1	1	Set

The characteristic equation is depicted below

Q_n+1 = D

2. SR Flip Flop

SR flip flop stands for Set Reset flip flop. SR flip-flop (Figure 2) is constructed with the use of a NAND latch and two NAND gates (Widmer et al., 2017, 256).

Figure 2

The truth table for SR flip-flop is shown as below

S	R	Qn+1
0	0	Qn	No change
0	1	0	Reset
1	0	1	Set
1	1	Indeterminate	Indeterminate

The characteristic equation is depicted below:

Q_n+1= S + Q_nR'

3. JK Flip Flop

The JK flip-flop can be seen as the improved iteration of a SR flip-flop; its design addresses the issue of an indeterminate state that arises when both inputs of the SR flip-flop are set to 1 (Widmer et al., 2017, 258).

In the JK flip-flop:

• The J input functions similarly to the S input of the SR flip-flop, intended to set the flip-flop to a particular state.
• The K input behaves akin to the R input of the SR flip-flop, responsible for resetting the flip-flop and changing its state (Widmer et al., 2017, 259).

The logic circuit of a JK flip-flop (Figure 3) is built by utilizing an SR flip-flop that is itself constructed from a NAND latch (Widmer et al., 2017, 259-260).

Figure 3

The truth table for JK flip-flop is shown as below: The characteristic equation is depicted below

J	K	Qn+1
0	0	Qn	No change
0	1	0	Reset
1	0	1	Set
1	1	Q'n	Compliment

The characteristic equation is depicted below:

Q_n+1= JQ' + K'Q

Programmable Logic Devices and Gate Arrays

1. Programmable Logic Devices (PLD)

PLDs, also known as field-programmable logic devices (FPLDs), offer the flexibility to create a wide range of digital circuits, from simple logic gates to complex digital systems.

With the understanding that any function can be expressed in sum-of-product (SOP) form, a programmable logic device (PLD) is composed of the following components (Widmer et al., 2017, 948):

• Input buffers and inverters generate both the original and complement forms of each input variable.
• A set of AND gates, where the inputs can be programmed or selected.
• A set of OR gates, where the inputs can also be programmed or selected.

Figure 4

Example:

Figure 5

Write the functions of f1 and f2 for the PLD above?

We just need to carefully examine which input and out are being connected to the gate.

f₁ = x₁x₂ + x₁x₃' + x₁'x₂'x₃

f₂ = x₁x₂ + x₁'x₂'x₃ + x₁x₃

2. Gate Arrays

Gate arrays are highly integrated circuits with a vast number of gates, often numbering in the hundreds of thousands. These devices rely on pre-fabricated gates that are interconnected to create the desired logic functions. The gate interconnections are determined by a custom-designed mask specific to the application, similar to the data stored in a mask-programmed read-only memory (ROM). Due to this characteristic, gate arrays are sometimes referred to as mask-programmed gate arrays (MPGAs) (Widmer et al., 2017, 943). While individually less expensive than PLDs with a similar gate count, gate arrays require custom programming, which adds complexity to their implementation.

State Machine Design

A state machine refers to a mathematical model or an abstract machine that exhibits different states and transitions between those states based on input conditions. It is a fundamental concept used to design and control sequential logic circuits.

A state machine consists of a finite set of states, a set of inputs, a set of outputs, and a set of transitions that define the behavior of the machine. The current state represents the internal condition of the machine, and the transitions determine how the machine moves from one state to another in response to input signals (Widmer et al., 2017, 481).

Let’s take a look at this flip flop circuit (Figure 6).

Figure 6

To construct a state diagram of Figure 6, the following steps need to be followed:

1. Obtain the function of the circuit: Understand the behavior and logic of the system to define its function.
2. Determine the four main components: Identify the present state, inputs, next state, and output of the circuit. These components define the behavior and transitions within the system.
3. Create a truth table: Combine the function and the four components to form a truth table. The truth table represents all possible combinations of inputs and current states, along with the corresponding outputs and next states.
4. Obtain the binary result: Analyze the truth table to determine the binary representation of the system's behavior and transitions. This binary result serves as the foundation for constructing the state diagram.

The equation for this flip-flop is an XOR function, and the truth table is constructed below.

A (t+1) = A x y

Present state	Inputs		Next state
A	x	y	A
0	0	0	0
0	0	1	1
0	1	0	1
0	1	1	0
1	0	0	1
1	0	1	0
1	1	0	0
1	1	1	1

Figure 7

We see that this state machine uses a single flip-flop. Therefore, it has two distinct states. Looking at the state diagram (Figure 7), these two states are represented as two circles, and the arrows indicate which input combination allows the current state to change from one to the other. The number inside the circles indicates that both the present state and the output can be either 0 or 1. For each state, the two inputs can assume four potential combinations.

Timing

A timing diagram is a visual representation of a set of signals in the time domain, usually consisting of a clock signal and an input and output.

The use of timing diagrams helps to find and diagnose digital logic hazards: Static, Dynamic, and Function Hazards. Logic Hazards are undesirable effects caused by either a deficiency in the system or external influences on the system (University of Surrey, n.d.). This can occur when changes in the input variable(s) do not change the output correctly.

1. Static Hazards are when one input variable changes the output changes momentarily.
2. Dynamic Hazards are when an output changes more than once from a single input change.
3. Function Hazards are when more than one input variables change at the same time.

Conclusion

Through this two-part blog series, I have offered concise explanations for each digital systems topic found on the FE Electrical exam. If you are looking for more comprehensive exam prep, check out School of PE’s FE Electrical exam review course!

References

Widmer, N. S., Tocci, R. J., & Moss, G. L. (2017). Digital Systems: Principles and Applications. Pearson.

About the Author: Khoa Tran

Khoa Tran is an electrical engineer working at the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and is currently pursuing his master's in electrical Power from the University of Southern California. He is fluent in both Vietnamese and English and is interested in outdoor activities and exploring new things.

A Deep Dive on Digital Systems: Exploring Topics within the FE Electrical Exam

For those looking to take the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Electrical Engineering (EE) Exam we will delve into various concepts and components of digital systems. The topics can be found on this link.They include:

1. Number systems
2. Boolean logic
3. Logic gates and circuits
4. Logic minimization (e.g., Sum of Product (SOP), Product of Sum (POS), Karnaugh maps)
5. Flip-flops and counters
6. Programmable logic devices and gate arrays
7. State machine design
8. Timing (e.g., diagrams, asynchronous inputs, race conditions, and other hazards)

Please note that while we aim to cover a wide range of information, we have limited space and time. Therefore, we encourage you to explore further resources if you wish to delve deeper into any particular topic.

In this Blog,

1. Number System

2. Boolean Logic

3. Logic Gates

4. Logic Minimization

5. Conclusion

Number System

The number system refers to the different ways in which numerical values can be represented and manipulated. This is done to simplify and compress large numerical values into a few easily interpreted digits. Digital systems rely on these number systems: decimal system, binary system, hexadecimal system, and octal system.

 

1. Decimal System
   The decimal system consists of a set of 10 symbols or numerals, namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. By utilizing these symbols as the digits of a number, we can represent any quantity within the decimal system (Widmer et al., 2017, 19).
   
   
2. Binary System
   In the binary system, we only have 0 and 1, and each binary digit has its own value expressed as a power of 2 (Widmer et al., 2017, 21). The concept is depicted in Figure 1, where positions to the left of the binary point, analogous to the decimal point, represent positive powers of 2, while positions to the right represent negative powers of 2.
   
   
   Figure 1
   
   
3. Hexadecimal System
   Hexadecimal is a numbering system represented in base 16, utilizing both numbers "0-9" and the alphabet "A-F" for double digit values "10-15".
   
    
4. Octal System
   This numerical system is a base-8 system, using digits "0-7"

Boolean Logic

Boolean logic, named after mathematician and logician George Boole, is a fundamental concept in digital systems and computer science. It is a branch of mathematics and logic that deals with variables and operations based on the principles of true and false, or 1 and 0, respectively. Boolean algebra, unlike other mathematical systems, does not involve fractions, decimals, negative numbers, square roots, cube roots, logarithms, imaginary numbers, and similar mathematical concepts (Widmer et al., 2017, 71). Table 1 shows the common logic terms for the 0 and 1.

 

Logic  0	Logic 1
False	True
Off	On
Low	High
No	Yes
Open switch	Closed switch

Logic Gates

The three basic operations are NOT, AND (*), and OR (+). Below, you will find the definition, logic symbol, and corresponding Boolean expression for each function.

1. NOT Operation

Figure x

The NOT operator or inverter (Figure x) inverts the sense of a binary value (0→1, 1→0) . It can be referred to as inversion or complementation. The NOT operation can be expressed as (Widmer et al., 2017, 80):

x = A or x = A'

The truth table is depicted below.

A	x
0	1
1	0

2. AND Operation

Figure x1

To illustrate the application of AND logic, let's take the example of a standard clothes dryer. The dryer will perform the drying process, including heating and tumbling, only if two conditions are met simultaneously: the timer is set above zero AND the door is closed. The AND circuit is illustrated in Figure x1. The AND operation can be expressed as (Widmer et al., 2017, 77-78):

x = A . B

The truth table is depicted below.

 

A	B	x = A . B
0	0	0
0	1	0
1	0	0
1	1	1

3. OR Operation

Figure x2

Let's consider an example in a kitchen oven. The scenario involves the oven's light, which should be activated under two conditions: either the oven light switch is in the "on" position OR the oven door is opened. To represent these conditions, we can use variables A to denote the state of the oven light switch (true or false) and B to represent the state of the oven door (true or false). The variable x can then represent the state of the light (true or false). The AND circuit is illustrated in Figure x2. The OR operation can be expressed as(Widmer et al., 2017, 73-74):

x = A + B

The truth table is depicted below. 

A	B	x = A + B
0	0	0
0	1	1
1	0	1
1	1	1

Logic Minimization

Logic minimization refers to the process of simplifying and optimizing logical expressions or equations. It involves reducing the complexity of logical functions by eliminating redundancies and minimizing the number of logic gates required to implement the function.

There are two simplifications we will explore: sum-of-products (SOP) and product-of-sums (POS).

1. Sum-of-Products

SOP consists of two or more AND terms that are ORed together. SOP can also be referred to as Minterm. The function used to denote the sum of minterms is expressed below (Widmer et al., 2017, 138).

 f (x,y,z) =∑ m(h,i,j,..) = m_h + m_i + m_j +...

The SOP is selected by f (x ,y ,z) = 1

2. Product-of-Sums

POS consists of two or more OR terms that are ANDed together. POS can also be referred to as Maxterm. The function used to denote the product of maxterms is expressed below (Widmer et al., 2017, 139).

 F (x ,y ,z) = ∏ M(h,i,j,...) = M_h . M_i . M_j

            The POS is selected by F (x ,y ,z) = 0

Given the truth table below, the expression of the SOP-Minterms and POS-Maxterms for the three binary variables can be obtained.

A	B	C	Minterms		Maxterms
			Term	Designation	Term	Designation
0	0	0	A'B'C'	m0	A+B+C	M0
0	0	1	A'B'C	m1	A+B+C'	M1
0	1	0	A'BC'	m2	A+B'+C'	M2
0	1	1	A'BC	m3	A+B'+C'	M3
1	0	0	AB'C'	m4	A'+B+C	M4
1	0	1	AB'C	m5	A'+B+C'	M5
1	1	0	ABC'	m6	A'+B'+C	M6
1	1	1	ABC	m7	A'+B'+C	M7

 

Example: Find the expression for the function f as (a) sum of minterms and (b) product of maxterms using the following truth table.

A	B	C	f
0	0	0	0
0	0	1	1
0	1	0	0
0	1	1	0
1	0	0	1
1	0	1	0
1	1	0	0
1	1	1	1

a) By following the rule of SOP, the sum of minterms can be obtained

f = A'B'C + AB'C' + ABC = m₁ + m₄ + m₇

b) By following the rule of POS, the product of maxterms can be obtained

 

f = (A+B+C)(A+B'+C)(A+B'+C')(A'+B+C')(A'+B'+C) = M₀ M₂ M₃ M₅ M₆

3. Karnaugh Map

A Karnaugh map consists of a grid-like structure, with input variables represented along the axes. Each cell in the grid corresponds to a specific combination of input variable values. The cells are typically labeled with binary values or decimal numbers, depending on the complexity of the function.

To simplify a logical function using a Karnaugh map, adjacent cells with 1s are identified and grouped together. These groupings, known as minterms, represent areas of the map where the logical function evaluates to true (1). By combining adjacent cells, redundant terms and logic gates can be eliminated, resulting in a simplified expression (Widmer et al., 2017, 152). Below are the steps on how to use Karnaugh maps or K-map to simplify logic expression (Widmer et al., 2017, 157-158).

a. Create a table

● In the FE Reference Handbook, you can find the K-map format in page xx to set up the table.

Figure x: K-map for 3 variables

Figure x: K-map for 4 variables

b. Complete the K-map from the truth table

● Place ‘0’ or ‘1’ into the corresponding cell term

A	B	C	f
0	0	0	1
0	0	1	1
0	1	0	1
0	1	1	0
1	0	0	0
1	0	1	0
1	1	0	1
1	1	1	0

Figure x

c. Form group of 1s

● Identify the 1s that are adjacent to only one other 1. Loop any pair containing such a 1.

● Groups can wrap around the edges and corners of the K-map.

● The “1” cells must be loop in an even group (groups of two, group of four, or group of eight). Make sure to use the minimum number of loops.

d. Form the Boolean expression

○ Each group represents the SOP equation.

f = A'B + BC'

The red group shares A = 0 and B = 0.

The blue group shares B = 1 and C = 0

e. The “Don’t Care”

○ “Don’t Care” is illustrated as an X in the truth table. It can be used as a ‘0’ or a ‘1’, whatever makes the looping easier.

f = A' + C'D + BD

Conclusion Part 1

This is a lot of information to sort through on your first reading; please take the time to reread and practice problems on your own. We will finish the other half of these topics in an upcoming blog. Again, as this is only an introduction to these topics, it is highly encouraged that examinees explore School of PE’s FE Electrical exam review course to complement their exam prep.

References

Widmer, N. S., Tocci, R. J., & Moss, G. L. (2017). Digital Systems: Principles and Applications. Pearson.

About the Author: Khoa Tran

Khoa Tran is an electrical engineer working at the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and is currently pursuing his master's in electrical Power from the University of Southern California. He is fluent in both Vietnamese and English and is interested in outdoor activities and exploring new things.