What is Coulomb's Law? An Introductory Guide

The blog covers:

1. Introduction

2. What Is Coulomb's Law?

3. Attraction and Repulsion of Charge

4. Application of Coulomb's Law

5. Conclusion

Introduction

Electricity is all around us, and the study of electromagnetism has led to some of the most significant technological advancements in modern history. One of the fundamental concepts in electromagnetism is Coulomb's law, which describes the force of attraction or repulsion between charged particles. This law was first proposed by French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb in the late 1700s and has been instrumental in our understanding of electricity ever since.

What Is Coulomb's Law?

Charles Coulomb used a device called the torsion balance, which he invented (Figure 1), to measure the electric forces between charged objects. The torsion balance operates on the same principle as the one used by English scientist Henry Cavendish to measure the density of the Earth. In Coulomb's experiment, he replaced the electrically neutral spheres in the apparatus with charged ones, and the resulting electric force between them caused the spheres to either attract or repel one another, twisting the suspended fiber. By measuring the angle of the twist, Coulomb was able to quantify the observed electric force of attraction or repulsion. Since the electric force between the charged spheres is much greater than the force of gravitational attraction, the gravitational force can be ignored (Jewett & Serway, 2013, 694).

Figure 1

Coulomb's law describes the force of attraction or repulsion between two charged particles. The force is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The Coulomb's law can be expressed in this mathematical term:

F_e = k_e  |q₁ ||q₂ |/r²   [N]   (1)

where F_e  is the electric force between the two charges, q₁ and q₂ are the charge magnitudes, r is the distance between the charges, and k_e  is a constant called Coulomb constant.

The International System of Units (SI) unit of k_e is

k_e = 8.987 x 10⁹ N*m²/C²  (2)

The Coulomb constant can also be expressed in another form:

k_e = 1/(4πε₀ ) (3)

where the constant ε₀ is the permittivity of free space, and its value is

ε₀ = 8.8542 x 10^-12 C²/N*m² (4)

The charge on a proton (+e) or an electron (-e) has the smallest unit of free charge. The values are presented in Table 1.

Particle	Charge (C)
Proton (p)	+1.60218 x 10-19
Electron (e)	-1.60218 x 10-19

Table 1: Charge of Proton and Electron

Attraction and Repulsion of Charge

Coulomb's law deals with force as a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. The electric force exerted by one charged object on another, written as

F^→₁₂ = k_e  |q₁ ||q₂| / r²  r ̂₁₂ (5)

where r ̂₁₂ is a unit vector directed from the first charge q₁ towards the second charge q₂. It is important to remember that the electric force exerted by one charged object on another obeys Newton's third law, meaning the force exerted by q₁ on q₂ is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted by q₁ on q₂ . Thus, it can be represented in terms of force, which is .

F^→₂₁ = -F^→₁₂

Moreover, if q₁ and q₂ have the same sign, then the product q₁q₂ is positive, and the electric force on one particle is directed away from the other particle. Figure 2 illustrates the repulsion force between two charges separated by a distance r.

Figure 2

On the other hand, if q₁ and q₂ are of opposite sign, then the product q₁q₂ is negative, and the electric force on one particle is directed toward the other particle. The attraction force will be illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3

The signs describe the relative direction of the force, indicating either an attractive or repulsive force. However, the absolute direction of the force on a charge depends on the location of the other charge (Jewett & Serway, 2013, 695-696).

Application of Coulomb's Law

Coulomb's law is a fundamental concept in electromagnetism that has numerous practical applications in our daily lives. For instance, the operation of electronic devices such as cell phones, computers, and televisions is all based on the principles provided by our friend Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. In order to function, these devices rely on the controlled movement of charged particles, electrons, which are governed by Coulomb's Law. The law plays a critical role in determining the behavior of electric charges and electric fields in these devices.

Not only does Coulomb's Law apply to our understanding of electronics, but it also plays a crucial role in understanding the behavior of charged particles in the human body. For instance, the movement of ions across cell membranes is regulated by Coulomb's law. The charged particles in the cell membrane, such as potassium and sodium ions, move in response to electric fields. The interactions between these charged particles play a vital role in the functioning of the human body.

With this fundamental understanding of interactions between charged particles, further scientific research has been made. Some famous examples of applied research are particle accelerators and mass spectrometers, machines that are used in studying the universe. These machines rely on the principles of Coulomb's law to manipulate and control charged particles; particle accelerators, for instance, use electric fields to accelerate charged particles to very high speeds, while mass spectrometers measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions or charged particles. These marvelous machines are used in experiments to study and quantify the fundamental properties of matter.

Conclusion

To conclude, Coulomb's law is essential in physics and electromagnetism, as it describes the force of attraction or repulsion between charged particles. Recognizing how charged particles interact with one another has allowed numerous real-world applications and has been instrumental in the development of modern technology. By understanding Coulomb's law, we not only have a greater grasp on electronic design, but also on biology and the pursuit of knowledge of our universe.

School of PE's engineering exam review courses have received numerous first-place rankings from third parties. Learn from the best and register for a course today!

References

Jewett, J. W., & Serway, R. A. (2013). Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics. Cengage Learning.

About the Author: Khoa Tran

Khoa Tran is an electrical engineer working at the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and is currently pursuing his master's in electrical Power from the University of Southern California. He is fluent in both Vietnamese and English and is interested in outdoor activities and exploring new things.

Demystifying Impedance: A Comprehensive Guide

• Introduction

• What Is Phasor?

• What Is Impedance?

• Impedance of Resistor

• Impedance of Inductor

• Impedance of Capacitor

• Application of Impedance

Introduction

In this blog, we will go over a fundamental concept in electrical engineering, specifically a core component in modeling alternating current (AC) circuits. Impedance refers to a component's natural opposition to the flow of alternating current in an electrical circuit.

What Is Phasor?

Before discussing what impedance is, I would like to address what a phasor is. Understanding phasor will help break down the complex concept of impedance.

A phasor is a type of complex number that contains information about both the amplitude and phase angle of a sinusoidal function. A phase angle is the angular difference between two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency. You can refer to Figure 1 for an illustration of the phase angle between two sinusoidal waves.

The mathematical concept is based on Euler's identity, which shows how the exponential and trigonometric functions are related (Nilsson & Riedel, 2015, 310):

e±^jθ = cosθ ± jsinθ = R(e^jθ) + I(e^jθ) (1)

From Equation 1, we can see cosine represented as the real part and sine represented as the imaginary part of the exponential function. The R denotes "the real part" and I denotes "the imaginary part".

In this example, the cosine function is represented as a voltage function to analyze the phasor representation:

V = V₁e^j(ωt+φ) = V₁cos(ωt + φ) + jV₁sin(ωt + φ) (2)

Equation 2 represents the voltage function in the frequency domain, where ω is the angular frequency,

ω = 2πf (rad/s) (3)

From Equation 1, there is another abbreviation form of the exponential function ejθ or phasor form.

e^jθ = 1 < θ (4)

What Is Impedance?

Impedance is a complex quantity that combines both resistance and reactance. Resistance is classified as the opposition of flow in direct current (DC), while reactance is the opposition of flow in AC; this is due to capacitance and inductance. Impedance is also measured in ohms (Ω), where the real part of the complex function is resistance, and the imaginary part denotes reactance. The mathematical representation of impedance is given by the following equation:

Z = R + jX(5)

where Z, R, and X are impedance, resistance, and reactance, respectively (Nilsson & Riedel, 2015, 318).

In AC circuits, impedance plays a critical role in determining the behavior of the circuit, as it affects the voltage drop and the current flow. Impedance of an AC circuit is calculated using Ohm's law, which relates current to voltage and to impedance. The equation for Ohm's law is

V = IZ (6)

where V is the voltage, I is the current, and Z is the impedance.

From here, we will evaluate the impedance of the resistor, inductor, and capacitor.

Impedance of Resistor

The equation of current in terms of cosine is given as i = I₁cos(ωt + θ) and when combined with Ohm's Law (Nilsson & Riedel, 2015, 315), the resulting voltage equation of the resistor is

v = RI₁cos(ωt + θ) (7)

where I₁ is the maximum amplitude, and φ is the phase angle (degree) of the current.

Voltage can then be rewritten as

v = RI₁e^jθ = RI₁ < θ (8)

From Equation 1, I₁ < θ is the phasor form so we can write the voltage equation:

V = RI (9)

Impedance of Inductor

Given the equation of current in terms of cosine, i = I₁ cos(ωt + θ) and the expression of inductor voltage, L di/dt (Nilsson & Riedel, 2015, 316),

v = L di/dt = -ωLI₁ sin(ωt + θ) (10)

we are able to rewrite Equation 10 as a cosine function:

v = -ωLI₁ cos(ωt + θ - 90^°) (11)

The inductor voltage can be illustrated in the phasor form:

V = -ωLI₁ e^j(θ-90°)

= -ωLI₁ e^jθ e^-j90° (12)

From Equation 1, we can simplify e^-j90°

e^-j90° = cos(90^°)-jsin(90^°) = -j (13)

This allows Equation 12 to be further simplified to

V = jωLI₁ e^jθ

jωLI_ (14)

Therefore, the impedance of inductor can be represented as

Z_L=jωL (15)

Impedance of Capacitor

The equation of voltage in terms of cosine is v = V₁ cos(ωt + θ), and the expression of capacitor current is C dv/dt (Nilsson & Riedel, 2015, 317).

i = C dv/dt = -ωCV₁ sin(ωt + θ) (16)

We can rewrite Equation 16 as a cosine function:

i = -ωCV₁ cos(ωt + θ - 90^°) (17)

The capacitor current can be illustrated in the phasor form:

I = -ωCV₁ e^j(θ-90°)

= -ωCV₁ ejθ e^-j90° (18)

Using Equation 13 and combining with Equation 18, we then are able to simplify the current further to

I = jωCV (19)

The voltage of capacitor can be expressed as

V = 1/jωC I (20)

Therefore, the impedance of capacitor can be represented as

Z_C = 1/jωC (21)

Application of Impedance

Impedance has numerous real-world applications in electrical engineering, including filter design, power electronics, antenna design, and audio systems. In filter design, impedance is used to control the flow of current, allowing only specific frequencies to pass through a given system. In power electronics, impedance is used to regulate the flow of current, ensuring efficient operation of the circuit. Antenna design requires impedance matching to ensure maximum power transfer of a signal or signals. Finally, in audio systems, impedance is used to match amplifiers to speakers for optimal sound quality.

1. Impedance in Transmission Line

Impedance matching is a critical factor in the design of transmission lines used to transmit electrical signals over long distances. The impedance of the transmission line needs to match the impedance of the load to ensure maximum power transfer, otherwise, any mismatch in impedance will result in a partial reflection of the energy and signal loss.

The equation for the impedance of a transmission line is

Z₀= √ L/C (22)

where Z₀ is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line, L is the inductance per unit length, and C is the capacitance per unit length.

2. Impedance Measurement and Testing

Impedance measurement and testing are essential in many fields of electrical engineering, including telecommunications, audio systems, and power electronics. Impedance meters and testers are used to measure impedance, and the techniques used depend on the application.

Conclusion

Impedance is an essential function in modeling AC circuits; it can be easily derived as the inherent resistance of electrical components. Understanding impedance allows for real-world applications and problem-solving of systems in the frequency domain. These applications can range from small signal designs of antennas in cell phones to long-distance power transfer of transmission lines.

Interested in becoming an electrical engineer? School of PE offers comprehensive FE and PE exam review courses to help you pass your engineering exams. Register for a course today!

References

Riedel, S. A., & Nilsson, J. W. (2015). Electric Circuits. Pearson

About the Author: Khoa Tran

Khoa Tran is an electrical engineer working at the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and is currently pursuing his master's in electrical Power from the University of Southern California. He is fluent in both Vietnamese and English and is interested in outdoor activities and exploring new things.

Mastering Employee Onboarding: Key Strategies for Success

Employee onboarding is an essential part of the employment process, and a poorly made program can make potential hires run for the hills in fear. Conversely, the effect of a well-made onboarding program is an increased retention rate of 82%. (Source) Developing a good onboarding process can help boost productivity within your organization and help employees with their long-term careers.

In this blog,

1. Focus of Employee Onboarding

2. Where does onboarding begin?

3. Components of an Effective Employee Onboarding Program

4. Who can benefit from an employee onboarding program?

5. Tips to Consider for Your Onboarding Program

1. Focus of Employee Onboarding

Employee onboarding is the process of helping an employee and company ease into a beneficial working relationship. It's an organized training process designed to assist new hires in the beginning of their employment within your company. There are three major purposes to this process.

1. It helps the employee acclimate to the work environment and their fellow employees.

2. It helps engage workers to gain higher performance rates.

3. It helps retain employees for a longer period of time by providing them with the knowledge that they need to succeed in their position.

Acclimation, engagement, and retention are the ultimate goals of an effective employee onboarding strategy.

2. Where does onboarding begin?

Onboarding employees isn't one single event, it's more of a process. However, there is a specific place in which the process begins: the application and interview process. As soon as a potential employee sees your advertisement for the position, they are given certain expectations for the job itself. It's important to put your best foot forward in creating a process that each applicant is drawn to - more specifically that the best applicant for the position is drawn to. Create the most accurate representation of the job, its requirements, and what the applicant can expect if they obtain employment within your company.

Other key parts of the onboarding process include:

The interview: Similar to the application, the interview will give certain expectations to the applicant of what working with the company will be like. You may find that a short interview is best. The most important thing to consider is how you represent yourself and your company within that interview.

The first day: The first day of a new job sets the tone for someone's entire career within your company. You're not only interviewing them, they're also interviewing you. They're determining if joining your team will be mutually beneficial. Don't discuss certain job features if you think it's likely to make them leave. Instead, be as accurate and transparent as possible because a bad fit for them is also a bad fit for you.

The first few months: Onboarding doesn't stop when someone is hired and trained. It continues until they can accurately complete their job expectations with little to no instruction from superiors. Set up structures and goal expectations that they can reliably and reasonably reach within a few months.

Avoid these onboarding mistakes:

- Relying on managers who don't know how to train or even answer the simplest questions.

- Leaving new employees alone on day one.

- Giving the employee a workspace that is not properly equipped for their responsibilities.

- Spending too much time on topics outside of the job description.

3. Components of an Effective Employee Onboarding Program

It's been established by this point that a good employee onboarding program is key in keeping employees satisfied and retaining them longer. Sometimes the onboarding process is the definitive factor in an employee's long-term success. Here are the components of an effective onboarding program:

Compliance and safety training

Company processes and procedures

Technical skills development

Soft skills training

Company culture

Products and services training

Technology tools and systems

Regardless of the type of business you run, these are important points to hit within the onboarding program. Establishing the expectations for excellence within a company relationship early on creates a baseline standard of cooperation that each employee follows. This in turn helps them understand safety and standard operating procedures within your individual company. In even the smallest company where a single employee operates beneath a single employer, establishing how the company is run, the expectations for productivity, and general procedures is the most important part of business strategy.

4. Who can benefit from an employee onboarding program?

You may think that the only people benefitting from an onboarding program are new employees, but there is no limit to the time frame in which an employee should complete the program itself. The truth is that veteran employees can also complete the program for a variety of reasons. The basic times that you would want an employee to complete the program are:

In the beginning: Having a new employee complete the program initially will help them ground themselves in the company, the procedures, and gain skills that they'll then develop as their time within the company goes on.

When your organization changes onboarding procedures since the employee was hired: Having the employee participate in the program or take the parts of the program that have shifted (if the entire program didn't change) will help them refamiliarize themselves with the newer parts of the program as well as understand what new hires have done in their onboarding. This also helps develop a company culture of similar experiences.

When the employee receives a promotion or change in positions: This is a frequent occurrence in larger companies, and each job title will have its own description and requirements, so retaking the program will help them know their job expectations.

With this in mind, you might ask, wouldn't it be better to have separate onboarding for separate positions?

While this is an effective solution, the purpose behind having each person complete the entirety of the onboarding program is to help them understand their job expectations within the context of the entire company. Showing the connections between what each position does and how one action will affect another down the line will contribute to the well-being of the entire company.

5. Tips to Consider for Your Onboarding Program

Now that you have a thorough understanding of what an employee onboarding program is, what factors go into its creation, and who can benefit from the program, here are a few tips to consider when preparing to create or implement your own onboarding program.

Delegate responsibilities: Delegation is the mark of a good leader. No person can do everything alone. With any project, there is a system of support designed to make the project work. Understand what you can do yourself and what would be best to delegate to another employee or team.

Think of it as a process, not an event: If thought of as an event, the time allotted for the onboarding program can be rushed and strained as you prepare to have the employee enter the workforce "officially." However, if thought of as an ongoing process, the employees are not hurried into completing jobs haphazardly. Instead, they can take their time learning their job responsibilities without added pressure.

Measure the effectiveness of your program: In order to make sure that the program is training employees to the best of its intention, create milestones of productivity that employees should be reaching in order to make sure that your program is working. If it's not working, or you're finding weak points within the system, adjust or adapt to make the most effective program you can.

Originality is a plus for employee retention: Employee retention is one of the main purposes behind creating an onboarding program. Focusing solely on policies and paperwork is one way to put unnecessary strain on your business. Instead, add team-building opportunities, build a kit surrounding the information they'll learn in the program, and give new hires a work mentor to help ease them into the job. The first year tends to be the hardest, and if an employee leaves, they're likely to do it within the first few months.

Plan onboarding in ways that impact employees' long-term success: Employment is supposed to be a mutually beneficial relationship, if done right. That means that each person is invested in the other. Provide opportunities for professional development that will help employees reach long-term goals within the company and on their own.

Present information in a variety of methods: It's been known for a long time now that people learn in a variety of different ways. For this reason, try to use a few different methods of sharing crucial information, from infographics, to video, audio, and physical presentations.

Be prepared: Plan ahead. Try to find all the options for failure and limit them by creating a plan to deal with them. Failure is always a possibility, but by planning for it, you limit the extent.

Onboarding employees doesn't have to be a struggle. Sometimes it may be long and complicated, but that doesn't mean it should be difficult. By developing a program that is transparent, specific, and engaging, you can help ensure the longevity of your company and the long-term success of your employees.

Are you seeking professional development opportunities for your team? A partnership with School of PE will help your employees maximize their potential! Talk to a business development representative today for more information.

About the Author: Anna Taylor

Anna Taylor is a freelance writer and avid researcher- a jack of all trades, but a master of none. She graduated from the University of Hawai'i with an Associate Degree in Liberal Arts because she had no idea what she wanted to be when she grew up. She has since found her love of Extended Reality and the possibilities it brings to the world, as well as gardening, cooking, and writing. Anna lives in Interior Alaska with her family.

Instructor Spotlight: Madison Rose Florian, PMP, PMI-ACP

At School of PE, we employ multiple instructors to teach the material in their areas of expertise-this sets us apart from our competitors. We have received a great deal of positive feedback from our students, and we believe that learning from experts in their respective areas provides the most comprehensive learning experience.

Our Instructor Spotlight series gives you a peek behind the scenes with some of School of PE's highly acclaimed instructors. Read on to find out more about our very own Madison Rose Florian, PMP, PMI-ACP.

Author Bio:

Ms. Florian earned her BA in Economics from the University of Colorado and then went on to work in the financial technology (fintech) industry for five years. Since 2021, she has been an independent project management consultant for small to midsize companies, and she has also partnered with School of PE to launch multiple project management certification courses for CAPM (Certified Associate in Project Management) and PMP (Project Management Professional). If you opt to take these courses Ondemand, it's her voice you'll hear! She also teaches PMP courses live and is a content writer for EduMind.

During the first quarter of 2023, Ms. Florian partnered with School of PE to launch a brand-new Ondemand PMI-ACP (Agile Certified Practitioner) course and looks forward to its launch later this year.

What attracted you to a career in project management?

My friends can attest to the fact that I've never been great at staying in one place. This is true for my career as well! I first got involved in project management when I was about a year out of university, working as a financial consultant at a large fintech firm. I became informally involved in an internal "company culture transformation" project, and I just remember thinking how cool it was that every day, there were new and dynamic problems to solve.

I began talking with lifelong project managers who would work on a project for eight months to a year, and then they would get assigned to a new project and work on something completely different. I loved the idea of leading a project, creating something new and exciting, and then launching that into the world.

What has been your most successful project?

This was more program than project management, but I think the project that I've felt the most personal connection with was when I oversaw the "Culture, Morale, & Employee Experience" branch of a major company acquisition. The financial broker I was working for at the time announced that it was acquiring another company, and I led the project team that was responsible for the employee transition experience. This was a major undertaking-I coordinated teams that managed systems and software access for the entire company as well as teams focused on training, morale, & engagement of employees transitioning into new roles. As this company is very large, the end result was the creation of processes and guidelines for the entire organization to follow to help ease the transition for employees.

Company acquisitions are really scary, especially for the company being acquired because the employees have no idea what their role is going to look like when all is said and done. Departments get consolidated, duplicate roles get eliminated, and it's a time of major anxiety for everyone involved. On top of that, this acquisition was happening in the middle of 2020, so everyone was transitioning to remote roles at the same time-talk about stressful! It was really rewarding to be a part of a project that helped to alleviate some of that anxiety and made that transition easier for the employees we were integrating into the company.

How do you prioritize tasks in a project?

Prioritization is one of the most important parts of managing a successful project. The key to keep in mind is that you can never prioritize in a silo. I've never been the expert on any of the projects I've managed-and not only is that okay, that's expected! My job as a project manager is to enable communication between the experts. I identify and bring together the stakeholders who can help me prioritize what is most important. It's always a balance between what the business stakeholders want and what is technically possible. Usually that means I'm a constant negotiator between business representatives and my project team that will actually be doing the work. It's also important to revisit priorities often; just because something was a priority two weeks ago doesn't mean it's a priority today. Business moves at a faster pace than ever before and your customer's demands will always be changing.

What is the most rewarding thing about being a project manager?

The field of project management is the field of innovation. You are always working on something new that is going to bring functionality, capability, or something else of value to a customer. That's never easy-your plans will constantly change and you will always have to think on your toes-but that's what makes it so rewarding when you get to deliver that "shiny new thing" to your stakeholders.

What do you think is the most important skill for a project manager?

Project managers are sometimes considered to be a jack of all trades, but one of the most important skills you can have as a project manager is emotional intelligence. The ability to identify and regulate your own emotions as well as the emotions of your team and stakeholders is so important. As a project manager, you are constantly negotiating, resolving conflicts, and prioritizing the needs of many groups. The ability to understand the emotions of others will go a long way in keeping your stakeholders engaged and committed to a project. You can have all the technical knowledge in the world, but projects are much more likely to fail if you don't have the commitment of your stakeholders.

What is the best way to prepare for the CAPM or PMP exam?

What was true for myself when I was preparing to take the PMP exam seems to be true for my students as well. Consistent practice is key. Rote memorization will only get you so far. Unfortunately, I don't think most students can take the PMP certification course and then pass the PMP exam the next day. The exam is situational, and answering mock exam questions is one of the best ways to prepare. Luckily, we provide full-length mock exams and extensive question banks with the PMP and CAPM certification courses. I recommend setting a personal deadline to take the exam and giving yourself at least a few weeks to prepare. Set aside time to study and answer practice questions on a regular basis and take at least one full-length mock exam before taking the real test.

What are the biggest challenges with obtaining PMP certification?

Honestly, I think one of the biggest challenges is motivating yourself to commit. The PMP certification is a time-consuming exam to prepare for, and even after you are approved by PMI to take the exam, you have a whole year to take it before your application expires! This makes it really easy to put off the exam or let other things take priority. If you are serious about passing the PMP exam and obtaining your certification, I recommend treating it like a temporary second job. Stay committed to the process, and you will pass the exam before you know it. And don't wait a whole year to take the test-you might start forgetting everything you need to know!

What is your approach to teaching exam prep?

It can be a challenge to keep students engaged in a virtual classroom; that is why I attempt to make the classes as engaging and interactive as possible. There is a lot of information you need to know to pass the PMP exam, but if I just talk to you the whole time, you're not likely to absorb a whole lot. I like to blend instruction time with opportunities for students to answer open-ended, thought-provoking questions. I also end each section of the course with mock exam questions so students can see how the concepts will apply to the exam.

What study strategies would you suggest for someone taking the PMP exam?

Here is the advice I give to all my students:

• Less memorization, more understanding: Use the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), 7th Edition and the Agile Practice Guide for reference. Reading these guides cover to cover is not a time-efficient way to prepare for the exam.

• Practice, practice, practice (exams). Answering situational questions is a great way to prepare.

        o Do not aim to answer the same questions every time. When you answer a question you have seen             before, you are likely to have memorized the answer.

• Set aside time to study every day, especially in the week leading up to your scheduled exam date.

• Participate in study groups and online forums. Many discussion forums for the PMP exist online and can be very helpful, especially if you cannot form a study group with people you know. Just remember that information you find online is not guaranteed to be true or correct; use online forums to discuss ideas and talk through concepts you are having a difficult time understanding.

What is one piece of advice you'd give to someone starting out as a project manager?

I struggled heavily with imposter syndrome when I was first starting out as a project manager, and this had a lot to do with the fact that I was supposed to manage the project, but I was never the expert or the most technically advanced person on the team. I thought the term "generalized specialist" was just a buzzword that project managers used to make themselves feel better, and I spent a lot of time poring over the technical details of the solutions my team was discussing because I didn't want to look stupid when I was running a meeting.

My advice to my past self, and to anyone else starting out in project management, is this: spend enough time with the technical details to be competent, but don't stress out so much about being the expert. It's okay that you don't know everything about the backend architecture of a software solution and you don't need to know how to code in C++. That's the team's job. Your job is to know enough to ask the right questions, and to trust the team to give you truthful and thoughtful answers. Being a good communicator is much more important than knowing as much as the team does.

My other piece of less exciting advice: stay organized. Always keep important project documentation front and center, and dedicate time to organizing project documents often. Without proper documentation and artifact management, your project team members will start getting confused fast. No one likes doing the project documentation, but don't procrastinate on it because it's more important than you think.

How to Deal with FE Exam Test Anxiety

This blog covers

• Introduction

• Causes of Anxiety

• Symptoms of Anxiety

• How to Overcome Anxiety

    o Identify Your Learning Style and Create a Study Plan

    o Seek Support from Peers

    o Keep a Positive Mindset

    o Simulate Test Taking

    o Reduce Caffeine

• Conclusion

Introduction

If you're preparing for the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam, you're likely experiencing a rush of anxiety building up to the test day. Maybe you are experiencing racing thoughts, sweaty palms, or a sense of dread making it all the more difficult to focus. Do not panic. It is important to realize that you're not alone in feeling this way; many people struggle with test anxiety, and there are effective strategies to reduce and manage it. In this blog, we'll explore some of the causes and symptoms of FE exam test anxiety and offer practical tips to overcome them.

Causes of Anxiety

One of the most common causes of FE exam test anxiety is feeling like your test prep isn't adequate. The feeling of not properly preparing or studying enough will naturally make you feel anxious about how you will do on the day of the exam.

Fear of failure is another common form of test anxiety. The overwhelming feeling that all of your time and effort may be in vain will make anyone nervous. Past negative experiences could also exacerbate existing test anxiety. If you've struggled with test-taking in the past, it can become increasingly difficult to shake the feeling that history will repeat itself again, especially for something as big as the FE.

Finally, fear of the potential negative consequences of your results can create test anxiety. It is understandable that with such an important test, you may feel that the results will make or break your future career, depending on how well you perform on the exam.

Again, this is all natural, and we all have encountered these feelings one way or another, but we can try to identify the causes and potential solutions to help alleviate them.

Symptoms of Anxiety

Test anxiety can manifest in various negative symptoms: physical, emotional, and behavioral. For those who are experiencing physical symptoms of stress, they may have a racing heartbeat, sweaty palms, or an upset stomach. Those suffering from emotional symptoms may experience fear, worry, or a sense of dread. Finally, those with behavioral symptoms can have difficulty concentrating or excessive fidgeting, only adding to the stress of preparing for the exam.

How to Overcome Anxiety

Here we will go over the many effective methods in managing FE exam test anxiety.

1. Identify Your Learning Style and Create a Study Plan

Identifying your learning style can be a great first step in preparing for the FE exam. Some people prefer learning visually through videos and diagrams, while some may prefer auditory learning, listening to lectures and discussions, and others may prefer hands-on learning, learning by going through practice problems and solving along the way. Realizing what learning style works for you will make planning out your approach simpler and geared towards you.

After learning what type of learner you are, it is then important to prepare thoroughly; to do so, create a study plan that allows you to review all the material in a well-structured program. You can refer to step 4 in "Essential Steps Before Taking the FE Exam" for further detail on how to prepare a comprehensive study plan.

2. Seek Support from Peers

It can be helpful to seek support from peers and mentors who have already taken the FE exam. They can offer valuable advice on what to expect, share study tips, and provide emotional support. Joining a study group or seeking out a mentor can help you feel less isolated in your test anxiety and provide a sense of community.

3. Keep a Positive Mindset

Maintaining a positive mindset can be challenging during stress and anxiety, but it is essential in managing FE exam test anxiety. Try to focus on the progress you have made in your studies rather than what you haven't accomplished. Celebrate small victories, and acknowledge that you are working towards a goal. Additionally, try to reframe negative thoughts into positive ones. Instead of thinking, "I'm going to fail," try "I am prepared, and I will do my best."

4. Simulate Test Taking

Simulate the test-taking experience using practice tests, and get comfortable with the time constraint and the exam format. While taking the practice test, use the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) Reference Handbook to familiarize yourself with its content before the exam. While practicing problems, it is key to utilize the handbook that will help you quickly locate formulas or information that you may need, thus you will not be panicked during the day of the exam. Also, you can refer to step 7 in "Essential Steps Before Taking the FE Exam" for further detail.

5. Reduce Caffeine

Caffeine can factor into your anxiety. For that commonly consuming caffeine, I would recommend caffeine consumption during the study process up until the exam day. I do consume caffeine myself, but what I have noticed is that having coffee, tea, or any kind of beverage containing caffeine will affect your concentration.

In addition to preparation, coping strategies can also be effective. Relaxation techniques like deep breathing or progressive muscle relaxation can help you calm down before the exam. Positive self-talk, visualization, and mindfulness can also help shift your mindset to a more positive, confident place. Finally, test-taking strategies like reading and understanding instructions, managing your time effectively, focusing on one question at a time, and taking breaks when needed can help you stay calm and focused during the exam.

Conclusion

FE exam test anxiety can be a challenging experience, but it's important to remember that there are many effective strategies to help mitigate it. By preparing thoroughly, using coping strategies, and utilizing additional resources when needed, you can reduce your anxiety and perform at your best on exam day. Remember, you're not alone in this struggle, and there are many people who have successfully overcome test anxiety to achieve their goals. With practice and persistence, you can do the same.

Good luck!

Are you ready to crush your FE exam with School of PE? Sign up for an exam review course today!

About the Author: Khoa Tran

Khoa Tran is an electrical engineer working at the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and is currently pursuing his master's in electrical Power from the University of Southern California. He is fluent in both Vietnamese and English and is interested in outdoor activities and exploring new things.