Thursday, 28 July 2022

Eight Things Nobody Ever Told You About the History and Science of Pipeline Materials

Pipelines have always fascinated me since this topic offers both history and science. Some of the earliest piping in the United States was installed not long after the Thirteen Colonies achieved independence from British rule. For example, Baltimore Gas and Electric (BGE) was established in the early 1800s as the first gas company in America, and Maryland was one of the Thirteen Colonies. But there is also the science of the materials used in pipeline construction. Cast iron was used in early gas mains and water mains and the field of materials science is based on applied chemistry. When reviewing old gas records (mains, services, meters), I have jokingly told co-workers to "remember the timeline" when trying to determine the material used for mains and services during certain time periods.
Eight Things Nobody Ever Told You About the History and Science of Pipeline Materials
1. Material Strength and Properties
Material strength and properties are topics that you also frequently see on both the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) and Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exams, as well as everyday life, so I would recommend reading about different materials and their applications and brushing up on your chemistry too! For example, aluminum (Al) is a relatively cheap, lightweight metal that offers decent robustness, which is why you see aluminum foil in grocery stores, and it is also the choice material for gas meters (aluminum casing is protective of internal components, but still light enough to carry without excessive exertion). Aluminum is commonly found in the Earth's crust, so it can be readily extracted for use, and aluminum can also be found on the periodic table (atomic number 13)! I passed the PE Mechanical (Thermal and Fluid Systems) exam, and I certainly saw my fair share of questions involving water, steam, and pipe flow, including their associated material properties. You will specifically see questions about material properties and behavior on the PE Metallurgical and Materials exam.
2. Wrought Iron
Wrought iron was also used as an early pipeline material. I think of this time period like a blacksmith era since before the 1900s, there was no assembly or mass production. Wrought iron is heated and then forged into a particular shape; it can be reheated and reworked until the desired shape is achieved for use, like a blacksmith skill. Cast iron is formed by melting iron in furnaces and then pouring into molds to make the castings (hence the name, "cast iron"). Cast iron has more than 2% carbon (also found on the periodic table!), so its carbon content differs from steel. Because cast iron has a higher carbon content, it is less metallic compared to both iron and steel. Carbon is a non-metal, so adding more non-metal content to a material will cause the material to exhibit non-metal properties. Steel is a ductile, malleable, and more weldable material whereas cast iron is brittle and has less weldability. So, if you add enough carbon to steel, it will eventually morph into cast iron (the higher carbon content is also more prone to cracking, so it is easier to weld steel than cast iron).
3. Cast Iron
In the past, cast iron was the choice material for water and gas mains (referencing the historical timeline, ductile iron was not conceived until the 1950s). Since ductile iron was not available in the early 1900s and cities and towns were populated, there needed to be some sort of piping network for gas heat and water usage. Because cast iron is brittle, it was only really used for lower pressure mains (the brittle material characteristics cannot handle the higher pressures). This also explains why ductile iron, steel, and polyethylene (PE, Plastic) have superseded cast iron as the piping material for water and gas mains. These materials are overall superior to cast iron since bursting would occur if cast iron was utilized for higher pressure pipeline applications.
4. Steel
Steel in its most basic form is an alloy; that is, steel is a combination of iron (Fe) and carbon (C). And, of course, iron is found on the periodic table (but you have probably already heard this enough from me by now). Both steel and oil are staples of the world economy. Steel can be tailored and customized with different alloying elements (e.g., titanium, chromium, cobalt). Transition metals are located between metals and non-metals on the periodic table; the name comes from these metals transitioning from metals to non-metals. And because they are transitioning, they are more customizable, so most alloying elements are transition metals. Steel's economic and customized potential enabled more opportunities for it to grow as a viable pipeline option.
5. Steel Improvements
Over time, steel fabrication methods improved, enabling the development of higher strength steels for pipelines. Welding steel became more prominent in the 1930s, and this led to increased variety and quality. However, the steel industry was largely dominated by World War II in the 1940s, and most of the steel produced was used in the war effort. Continuing the timeline, the 1950s was a bad decade for steel pipe. The world had been decimated by war, and obviously, everything did not fully recover overnight. And with all the best steel focused on military applications, there was not much good steel remaining for pipelines.
6. Historical Use of Steel
Working in the natural gas industry, I have seen mostly steel pipe used for gas lines in the 1960s and into the early 1970s. Galvanizing is the process of applying protective zinc coating to steel or iron pipe; the coating prevents rusting and corrosion. Galvanized pipe was also commonly used in the 1960s for water pipe too. Different types of coatings were applied to protect pipe, and this was a better alternative to bare steel since, as its name implies, bare steel did not have any coating, so it was more susceptible to corrosion, leaks, and integrity loss. But remember, this was 1950s leftover steel being used for pipeline in the aftermath of the Second World War. Industry needed to keep moving forward, but resources were scarce.
7. Transition to Plastic Piping
Poor welding practices can also cause defects such as cracking, porosity, and gouges. Most bare steel has been replaced in the industry by today's standards. This was a priority since leaks were frequent and bare steel pipe needed immediate remedy, otherwise there was an increased risk of pipe failure and gas explosions. But steel pipe is still widely used today for steam lines and higher-pressure mains (e.g., transmission lines). The higher tensile strength is critical for handling high pressures without bursting failure. Other methods such as post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) have been developed to improve welding quality and integrity. Because steel pipe was subject to corrosion and required additional techniques (e.g., welding), companies and material scientists were still trying to pursue other piping alternatives. In the mid-1960s, utilities started transitioning towards plastic pipe. Different fusion techniques were being developed to connect pipe segments together without the need for welding, and equipment manufacturers helped to usher in the new plastic era. Aldyl-A pipe was first conceived by DuPont as a new plastic alternative to steel pipe, and it became commercialized in the early 1970s. Since plastic offered a new solution for gas mains, Aldyl-A was installed nationwide in the United States in the budding plastic years.
8. Aldyl-A Pipe
Over time, however, a couple of issues arose with the new Aldyl-A pipe. There was confusion over the color code of the plastic pipe. Before yellow became the industry standard for gas pipe, different colored versions of Aldyl-A pipe were installed, and other plastic pipes were orange (telecommunications lines were also orange). The bigger issue was the Aldyl-A material integrity. As Aldyl-A was implemented into the market, DuPont later discovered in the 1970s that the Aldyl-A was prone to cracking and rupture due to excessive temperature settings when manufacturing the pipe. Because crack propagation was more apparent, DuPont issued a nationwide memo to alert contractors and utility companies of the issue and worked to develop an "improved Aldyl-A" in the 1980s. Remember, original Aldyl-A was 1960s technology at the time, so materials testing was not as refined as we see it today.
Conclusion
Plastic pipe today is largely produced from polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) materials. This has superseded Aldyl-A which has been discontinued, and provisions have been implemented to replace Aldyl-A pipe as a precaution. But there certainly continues to be new eras ahead as some manufacturers are looking into potentially developing plastic pipe for high pressure gas transmission applications (they're currently using steel due to the high-pressure conditions), among other ideas. Regulations are continuously updated, and new technologies are always being explored, so I would recommend continued reading about both the industry and School of PE blog posts.
Are you ready to get in the engineering "pipeline"? School of PE can help you in your quest to become a licensed professional engineer. Get in touch with us today to learn more about our comprehensive courses!

About the Author: Gregory Nicosia

Gregory Nicosia, PE is an engineer who has been practicing in the industry for eight years. His background includes natural gas, utilities, mechanical, and civil engineering. He earned his chemical engineering undergraduate degree at Drexel University (2014) and master's in business administration (MBA) from Penn State Harrisburg (2018). He received his EIT designation in 2014 and PE license in 2018. Mr. Nicosia firmly believes in continuing to grow his skillset to become a more well-rounded engineer and adapt to an ever-changing world.

Thursday, 21 July 2022

10 Questions and Answers About Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries are a growing new technology in the industry, especially as the discussion of energy sources continues to be a hot topic worldwide. Existing energy sources (e.g., fossil fuels) are being called for replacement with alternative energy sources (e.g., wind, solar, nuclear) to power the world and economies. Lithium-ion batteries offer the potential for both power and energy storage but also have their own consequences too. Batteries are typically within the electrical engineering realm, but there is always some overlap in the engineering industry, so I would recommend all engineers become familiar with battery technology, regardless of their discipline background.
10 Questions and Answers About Lithium-Ion Batteries
1. How Do Batteries Store Energy?
Batteries store electricity in a chemical form within a closed system (already you can see the overlap with chemical engineering and thermodynamics!). Some are hopeful that advances in battery technology can solve the energy crisis, and we have already advanced beyond the typical battery use as a power source in small appliances. Devices such as accumulators can store energy for future use, and battery capacity is the quantity of energy storage. Temperature influences battery capacity, with batteries at higher temperatures possessing better capacity than batteries at lower temperatures; however, extremely high temperatures can cause battery damage and undesirable reactivity (e.g., thermal runaway). Lithium-ion batteries have the danger of catching fire and undergoing thermal runaway themselves.
2. What Is Lithium and Why Is It Used in Batteries?
Lithium is the lightest of all metals and has the greatest electrochemical potential, but it can be explosive. In the periodic table (FE Reference Handbook, v 10.0.1, p. 88), lithium is a group 1 alkali metal (e.g., sodium, potassium) and has characteristics of being highly reactive with high energy density. Although lithium itself is unstable (group 1 metals are very reactive), the lithium-ion is more stable (but has a lower energy density). The lithium-ion battery was first introduced in 1991 by the Sony Corporation, and other manufacturers have since sought to commercialize the battery. Graphite and lithium-cobalt oxide are used as electrodes; lithium ions transfer between the anode and cathode. Lithium-ion cells are secondary (rechargeable) cells, so the recharging converts electrical energy back into chemical energy.
3. Why Are Batteries Disposable?
Primary batteries are disposable because the electrochemical reaction cannot be reversed; chemical energy is converted into electrical energy only. Primary cells cannot be recharged; when the cell reaction reaches equilibrium, products migrate away from the electrodes and are consumed by side reactions occurring in the cell. But secondary batteries are rechargeable because the electrochemical reaction can be reversed so voltage can be applied to the battery in the opposite direction of discharge. The electron discharge direction (originally negative to positive) is reversed, restoring power. Rechargeable batteries are often recyclable, including lithium-ion batteries. Oxidized lithium is non-toxic; it can be extracted from a battery and used as feedstock for new lithium-ion batteries.
4. What Is Battery Energy Density?
Lithium-ion batteries offer high energy density and high voltage, along with strong current to power complex mechanical devices. Battery energy density is the amount of energy a battery contains for its given weight and size. These batteries also have good longevity; their shelf-life is only 5% discharge per month. The longevity is an important factor since lithium-ion batteries do not lose their features rapidly. They can be stored and transported for long periods and still maintain their qualities. Battery weight and size is generally a limiting factor for developing electronic devices; you have probably seen it in everyday life with television remotes and other handhelds. Many of these device designs are dictated by the battery design since the battery is their power source after all.
5. How Can We Improve Batteries?
Lithium-ion batteries are also compatible with nanoscale materials, creating more possibilities for their potential (did you like the pun?). Electrodes can be optimized by designing their structures on the nanoscale level. With nanoscale technology, objects can be manufactured at the atomic and molecular level. And since nanoparticles have little volume expansion, this improves the rechargeable reversibility of lithium-ion batteries. Lithium diffusion rates are slow, so the battery can continue the reversibility cycle without losing much charge. Carbon nanotubes can serve as a potential electrode for lithium-ion batteries. Carbon can be anodic with its unique structural and mechanical properties. Remember that oxidation occurs at the anode, and reduction happens at the cathode. The anode is the positive side where the electricity moves into by attracting electrons.
6. What Are Some Commercial Applications of Batteries?
Nanotech and lithium-ion batteries can be commercialized; this combination can provide lighter, more powerful batteries that can increase user mobility and equipment life. This is the best of both worlds since you have the very small nanoscale but with high energy density. Another commercial application is that lithium-ion batteries can coexist with other renewable technologies. Because they are light, can recharge quickly, and hold charge for a long while, they have the design flexibility to be used with wind and solar generators. The lightness and power volume enable storage flexibility too.
7. What Are Some Disadvantages of Batteries?
While lithium-ion batteries can be an advantageous technology, they do have their disadvantages. Lithium-ion batteries are expensive, and the battery temperatures are delicate, so they are subject to regulations. Vibration, shock, and forced discharge can all cause undesirable battery defects, so lithium-ion batteries must follow shipment and transportation regulations. Lithium-ion batteries contain corrosive and flammable electrolytes and are considered a hazardous material by the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT). According to Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standards, lithium-ion batteries must be disposed in separate recycling and waste collection points.
8. How Can You Safely Store Batteries?
The batteries also require high capacity and high operating voltage to function properly. Storage installations in the United States have demonstrated concerns over battery safety. In April 2019, the McMicken event was one such example. Arizona Public Service (APS) is the largest electric utility in Arizona, and the company had invested heavily in batteries for energy storage projects. A grid battery fire occurred near Phoenix due to a lithium-ion battery defect; this led to an explosion that triggered a chain reaction, releasing explosive gases. While lithium-ion batteries possess good longevity, the batteries can still degrade over time, losing their shelf life. Degradation can cause a short circuit, heating up the batteries, and triggering thermal runaway.
9. What Is Thermal Runaway?
Thermal runaway is a form of uncontrollable combustion, releasing heat as an exothermic reaction. First responders were injured due to the reaction, but fortunately, the storage facility was relatively remote, so the battery accident did not result in a catastrophic loss of human life. Still, this incident delayed future battery projects for APS and discouraged confidence in pursuing lithium-ion battery technology. The primary disadvantage with lithium-ion batteries is safety concerns and rightfully so, as safety should always be first priority in the engineering industry. Thermal runaway can rapidly increase its severity causing devastating fires and explosions. Heat released speeds up the reaction which causes more heat release that can eventually lead to scorched earth, property damage, and fatalities.
10. What Happens When You Link Battery Cells?
Linking battery cells increases system energy capacity but also increases failure probability. Heat dissipation is also more difficult on larger-scale systems. There are few simulation tools that can accurately predict the probability of battery failure or degradation; testing must be conducted to achieve reasonable estimates. For lithium-ion batteries to become a mainstay of commercial energy storage, there must be improved guaranteed safety measures designed into large-scale systems. This is the trade-off; battery chemistry can produce high energy storage, but the same chemistry produces high reactivity. The key challenge is designing battery systems that can maximize energy storage but minimize reactivity; if this were achievable, you would have a truly superior battery.
Conclusion
Lithium battery technology is an exciting and growing field; there are many new challenges and opportunities ahead. Oftentimes more research and learning will lead to more questions that require further research for resolutions. For example, lithium-air batteries have recently been investigated by scientists and supposedly have a very high energy density, even greater than lithium-ion batteries. Be sure to check with School of PE for more technological and industry news, as there may be a succeeding blog post about lithium-air batteries!
Are you feeling "charged" about batteries and their importance in our daily lives? Engineers are integral in innovating and improving battery technology-if you are interested in becoming a professional engineer, a partnership with School of PE is just what you need to get started on the right track. Our subject-matter expert instructors and comprehensive materials will help you succeed on exam day! Register now for a course.

About the Author: Gregory Nicosia

Gregory Nicosia, PE is an engineer who has been practicing in the industry for eight years. His background includes natural gas, utilities, mechanical, and civil engineering. He earned his chemical engineering undergraduate degree at Drexel University (2014) and master's in business administration (MBA) from Penn State Harrisburg (2018). He received his EIT designation in 2014 and PE license in 2018. Mr. Nicosia firmly believes in continuing to grow his skillset to become a more well-rounded engineer and adapt to an ever-changing world.

Thursday, 14 July 2022

Did You Know April is National Safe Digging Month?

I have always enjoyed the month of April since it marks the first full month of spring. The days become longer, warmer, and there is generally a feeling of optimism in the air. Folks are coming out of their winter hibernation and looking forward to more outdoorsy activities. April also marks National Safe Digging Month since the month also marks the beginning of peak construction season. Contractors, crews, and inspectors are out in full force with their equipment, installing new buildings, pipelines, and other infrastructure. National Safe Digging Month is both a celebration of the construction industry and a reminder of the importance of industry safety.
Did You Know April is National Safe Digging Month?
1. The Common Ground Alliance
In 2008, the Common Ground Alliance (CGA) started National Safe Digging Month as a safety awareness initiative in response to the increased digging activity in the Springtime, and it is recognized today by the United States Congress and State Governors. Established in 2000, CGA is a non-profit organization committed to the damage prevention of underground infrastructure and protecting individuals in the North American utility industry. Membership consists of both companies and individuals striving towards these goals. CGA is managed by a board of directors and is always looking for stakeholders such as regulators, excavators, locators, engineers, and emergency workers, among others, to support damage prevention efforts. In 2005, 811 was designated as the national One Call number for anyone completing digging projects in America. And it has been noted that a utility line is damaged approximately every six (6) minutes.
2. The Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration
The Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) is an agency under the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT) and embraces National Safe Digging Month; in this calendar year (2022), PHMSA will be awarding grants to support damage prevention programs at the state level. They have also partnered with other pipeline stakeholders in this effort. When dialing 811 through the utility One Call system, you must first wait three (3) days for utilities in the site-specific area to respond. The three (3) days are a grace period for utilities to respond and locate their infrastructure accordingly (it is a violation for the excavator to start too soon; you must allow ample time for utilities to provide a response). Some utilities will complete their markings with their associated colors, while others may provide drawing plans for the site-specific area. It is also acceptable to respond with no facilities in the area (if the area is clear of that utility infrastructure). However, it is unacceptable to not respond through the One Call System, and this will be recorded as a response. It is important to note that failing to respond to a One Call request is a violation and can lead to ramifications for the negligent utility (remember, the utility One Call responses are recorded, so this would appear as written documentation if legal proceedings were to occur).
3. Lack of Regulation
Historically, there has not been much regulation in the utility industry; unfortunately, many lines are mismarked or not marked at all (this is why underground utility damage continues to occur despite improved safety measures). I work in the utility industry, so I have reviewed old main and service records that are oftentimes missing information. Incomplete As-Builts can lead to hit lines that can cause unplanned shutdowns, costs to repair infrastructure (fiber optic is very expensive!), and both human and property damage, so these drawings and sketches must be rectified immediately-not just for recordkeeping but also to ensure safety. As a utility worker, I also frequently see safety updates about topics such as trenches, equipment handling, and personal protective equipment (PPE).
4. Avoiding Miscommunication and Protecting Workers
There have been communication miscues in the past too. I had a project where records indicated the utility line was only four (4) feet deep. However, it turned out to be 14 feet deep! A resurfacing project had been completed earlier but was not communicated to the other utilities, so the records were never updated properly. You could imagine my surprise when I received the shoring invoices-it was quite the fee! This is also a reminder that shoring and trench boxes are required when trenches exceed five (5) feet deep. This is an Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standard that is designed to prevent trench collapses that can cause an unprecedented grave for workers. OSHA has issued citations before and even noted fatalities since contractors and companies did not adhere to this standard. Always remember that while some requirements may appear strict and arduous, they are designed to protect workers and increase the probability of a smooth operation.
5. Getting Ready to Dig? Call 811!
You must always call 811 before digging, regardless of how small or how shallow a project may be (some diggers have mistakenly believed that certain projects do not require the 811 locates, since their project occurs at a shallow depth). It is true that most underground infrastructure is installed at least a few feet deep, but this is not guaranteed; you must absolutely notify your state 811 center about your construction intentions. I had a project that involved a gas service line installation for a new warehouse. There were concerns about the depth of the existing gas main since vibrations and tremors from heavy-duty trucks and tractor trailers could potentially dislodge the service tee and cause a gas leak. So, remember to dial 811 before digging! The utility One Call system also serves as a reminder for businesses, homeowners, and contractors to have utilities marked before digging and to be wary of underground lines in the area.
Utility locates for each state in the United States utilizes (like the pun?) the 811 System for Subsurface Utility Engineering (SUE). Some states have unique 811 names such as Sunshine 811 (Florida), OKIE 811 (Oklahoma), Blue Stakes of Utah 811 (Utah), and Gopher State One Call (Minnesota). The utility One Call system covers public right-of-way (ROW) areas. Utilities may use the public ROW space in municipalities to install their infrastructure (mains, poles, etc.) since utilities are designed to serve the public after all. Each utility receives a different color representation: gas is yellow, electric is red, water is blue, sewer is green, telecommunications is orange, and reclaimed water/slurry is purple. Construction sites are marked with white paint.
6. Utility Line Detection
Utility lines are installed with tracer wire, so the line path is detectable. The tracer wire is typically copper wire since copper is a metallic conductor. Locating instruments are used to identify the utility lines like a metal detector. Marker balls can also be used to identify specific objects such as valves and other pipe fittings; these can be critical since valves can restrict flow and fittings such as elbows can change pipe direction. Locators should be aware of these items and their approximate locations so they can properly notify the excavator if there are potential concerns of key infrastructure conflicting with new pipeline installation. Caution warning tape is the last line of defense before contacting the utility line when digging underground. Both marker balls and caution tape can also follow the same utility color scheme to help the excavator identify the respective utility. Some utilities may have the same pipe material used at a jobsite, so you might not always be able to differentiate one utility from another.
7. OSHA Training Courses
I have also attended different OSHA training courses, and OSHA offers some interesting information on their website about recorded violations and fatalities. Statistics indicate that roadway incidents and falls (including falls into trenches) are leading causes of work-related fatalities. Trench collapses also contribute towards workplace violations and citations. There has been recent discussion about heat hazard prevention initiatives as temperatures will start increasing over the next few months. Spring and summer months offer longer and warmer days, so there is greater risk of heat and sun exposure.
Conclusion
Digging is dynamic since it involves construction, PPE, utilities, and regulatory requirements. National Safe Digging Month is not a brand-new concept, but it is certainly worthwhile to review and reinforce good digging practices. OSHA has noted recurring themes with incidents such as falls and trench collapses, so there is always opportunity for improvement in the construction industry. You can help protect human life, reduce costs, and improve utility recordkeeping and infrastructure. So, while you're enjoying the weather this spring, remember to know what's below-call before you dig! And of course, keep checking back with School of PE for more blog posts!
Many different types of engineers will oversee projects that require digging and utility line detection. If you are interested in becoming a professional engineer, School of PE provides comprehensive FE and PE exam review courses to help you on your journey to licensure! Register for a course today.
About the Author: Gregory Nicosia

Gregory Nicosia, PE is an engineer who has been practicing in the industry for eight years. His background includes natural gas, utilities, mechanical, and civil engineering. He earned his chemical engineering undergraduate degree at Drexel University (2014) and master's in business administration (MBA) from Penn State Harrisburg (2018). He received his EIT designation in 2014 and PE license in 2018. Mr. Nicosia firmly believes in continuing to grow his skillset to become a more well-rounded engineer and adapt to an ever-changing world.

Thursday, 7 July 2022

Principles of Health, Safety, and Environment (HSE) in Chemical Engineering

Health, safety, and environment (HSE) is essential in the engineering industry as well as all other industries. Every company/employer should have a safety program and many employers offer training courses based on Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) guidelines. You should check OSHA occasionally for industry updates, including press releases, incidents, citations, and violations. OSHA publishes a list of fatalities and tracks records for different seasonal and industry trends; falls and trench collapses are frequently recorded as leading causes of fatalities in the industry. HSE is a Topic on the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Chemical exam (5-8 Questions), so you certainly want to keep your knowledge of the subject matter fresh. You will also find that some things you learn in the industry will appear on the FE and Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exams (blowdown was a familiar topic that I saw on the PE Exam).
Principles of Health, Safety, and Environment (HSE) in Chemical Engineering
1. FE Reference Handbook
The FE Reference Handbook (v 10.0.1) also includes a safety section, which provides good information, not just during the FE Exam, but also in the industry. I recently completed a noise study for a new station design, and I was reviewing the FE Reference Handbook myself for decibel requirements. Different regulatory bodies develop codes and standards that govern safety laws and good practices; you may see a question like this on the FE exam where you must identify the organization's function based on acronym only (e.g., OSHA, ANSI, UL). Some FE exam questions may come directly from the Handbook, so you may want to mentally bookmark the pages on topics such as confined space, flammability, and toxicology.
2. Safety Data Sheets
One section from the NCEES format for FE Chemical is about Safety Data Sheets (SDS). This is also referred to as a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS); the naming might be a little different, but the purpose for both SDS and MSDS is the same. The SDS provides information about potential hazards in both the workplace and laboratory environments. There are 16 sections in the SDS, including subjects such as toxicology, transport, disposal, and regulatory. This aids in the development of training programs to ensure good safety practices and controlled use of pesticides so they are handled carefully without damaging human and environmental health. Manufacturers, importers, and distributors are required by the Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) to provide SDS information for their products. More information about the SDS is included in the FE Reference Handbook (v 10.0.1, p. 18).
3. Hazard Rating Diamond
Another common symbol that you will see in the industry is the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Hazard Rating Diamond (NFPA 704: Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for Emergency Response). There are four (4) diamonds within the central diamond: Flammability (Red), Health (Blue), Reactivity (Yellow), and Special Notice (White). These hazard assessments are also included in the FE Reference Handbook (v 10.0.1, p. 14). Candidates for the PE Fire Protection exam will certainly become more familiar with the flammability features. But remember, the NFPA Diamond applies to all industries since you can have different forms of fire (e.g., chemical, electrical, etc.) and other hazards. Safety is truly apparent in every engineering discipline, and there certainly is overlap. For example, NFPA 70 is a fire protection code, but it's also the standard for the National Electrical Code (NEC). And the NEC covers safety for electrical design, installation, and inspection.
4. Industrial Hygiene
Industrial hygiene is another HSE section on the FE Chemical exam. Toxicity is part of the SDS and has the capability of causing illness. Prevention is the key to maintaining good health, but as an engineer, you must understand that risk management is part of the industry. There will always be some level of risk in any kind of engineering design (e.g., plant design, bridge design, vehicle design, etc.). Risk exists in all walks of life and is part of all industries. In the financial world, risk is more related to investments and the stock market, but risk is more discussed in the engineering industry since engineering is much more tangible and can directly impact both human life and property.
5. Defining Risk
The FE Reference Handbook defines risk as being equivalent to Hazard x Probability or Hazard x Exposure (v 10.0.1, p. 13). The key takeaway with toxicity is that longer exposure at a higher concentration produces a more severe hazard. Always remember that toxicity occurs due to exposure and inhalation; if you can mitigate and avoid these two factors, then you have a better chance of reducing your risk severity. I interned at a nuclear power plant one summer, and one of the safety measures was being mindful of radiation poisoning from exposure. Whenever in the nuclear plant, employees were required to wear dosimeters to measure radiation exposure over a time period. As expected, the closer you were to the nuclear reactor, the higher exposure from the increased concentration. And the longer you were near the reactor, the greater the radiation reading on your dosimeter. I likened the COVID-19 pandemic to radiation poisoning; that is, the longer I may have been exposed to COVID-19 and the larger the crowd of affected persons, the greater my risk was of testing positive for COVID-19 myself. Thankfully, I avoided large crowds and potentially affected individuals, so I have not tested positive (similar to mitigating both time and radiation concentration).
6. Noise Exposure
Like toxic exposure, noise exposure is also a similar risk; the longer time and higher concentration, the greater risk you have of experiencing hearing loss. Again, prevention and avoidance are the best safety measure, but engineers must occasionally foray into hazardous environments. In many cases, it is part of the job description. As mentioned earlier, I have recently completed a noise study, and the recommended OSHA noise exposure limits are listed in the FE Reference Handbook (v 10.0.1, p. 33). It is always interesting to see the actual applications come to life, from the textbook literature to industry. Noise abatement is the practice of reducing undesirable sound in processes and equipment to an acceptable level that will not be damaging to human health and the environment.
7. Using PPE TO Mitigate Hearing Damage
Noise exposure also requires the use of proper personal protective equipment (PPE). You should not estimate the importance of hearing protection; I worked with a welding inspector who explained to me that while he was always good with his eye protection, he should have been better with his hearing protection and may have incurred some hearing loss over the course of his career. Ergonomics is the study of human efficiency in the working environment and plays a role in determining hearing thresholds. Charts and frequencies for hearing ergonomics are included in the FE Reference Handbook (v 10.0.1, p. 429). Industrial Engineering is primarily focused on developing efficient processes, so industrial engineers will more likely encounter ergonomics compared to other engineering disciplines. PPE should also be included in section 8 of the SDS as a safety precaution.
8. Hazard and Operability Studies
A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study is another method for identifying potential hazards in the workplace. Conducting a HAZOP study prior to beginning work is a good way to evaluate risk based on the equations described earlier and can help to mitigate risk severity. My first engineering position involved a lot of fieldwork, so I was outside often. While it was nice to enjoy the fresh air rather than always sitting at a desk all day, there were outdoor hazards (e.g., weather, traffic conditions, flora and fauna, etc.). Before meeting with contractors and beginning construction, I always visited the job site to survey the area, scouting for any potential hazards or obstructions that may impede job success. This ranged anywhere from identifying culverts or other utility lines that could be damaged to reviewing wetlands delineation studies for projects that were in environmentally sensitive areas. Bog turtles and hogweed were amongst noteworthy items that required consideration.
Conclusion
Essentially, I would conduct my own HAZOP study to gauge site conditions. You should always be reading and learning from your co-workers, managers, and peers as there is always something new to learn. Remember, subjects like HSE and risk management are part of both industry and life, extending beyond the workplace. I would also recommend checking frequently with School of PE for more blog posts and discussion topics. It could help with your next job site and/or job search!
Have you always wanted to become a chemical engineer? Consider taking an FE Chemical exam review course with School of PE to help you achieve this goal! We offer multiple course options to best fit your busy schedule-register today!

About the Author: Gregory Nicosia

Gregory Nicosia, PE is an engineer who has been practicing in the industry for eight years. His background includes natural gas, utilities, mechanical, and civil engineering. He earned his chemical engineering undergraduate degree at Drexel University (2014) and master's in business administration (MBA) from Penn State Harrisburg (2018). He received his EIT designation in 2014 and PE license in 2018. Mr. Nicosia firmly believes in continuing to grow his skillset to become a more well-rounded engineer and adapt to an ever-changing world.